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education - Coggle Diagram

- - - - According to Durkheim (1903), education performs two basic functions:
        
        It promotes social solidarity without which society would fall apart. By transmitting society's shared culture, education binds people together and enables them to cooperate. Teaching a common history and shared rituals (such as singing the national anthem) is important to show pupils they share the same past and have a common purpose. Education also teaches children to follow universalistic rules which are essential for cooperation in society.
        
        Education prepares young people for work. Industrial societies have a specialised division of labour which requires people to undergo often long periods of training for specific occupations. Education equips individuals with the specialist skills needed to participate in work in a modern economy
    - - Tallcott Parsons (1961) argues that the school is the 'focal socialising agency' of modern society.
        
        Secondary socialisation During primary socialisation within the family, each child is treated differently - as someone who is 'special'. Wider society cannot function in this way - everyone has to be treated in the same way (e.g. all are equal before the law). Education teaches these universalistic standards and acts as a bridge between the family and wider society. In particular, it socialises individuals into the shared values of a meritocratic society
        Meritocracy: A meritocratic society is based upon two key values:
        
        Individual achievement Everyone achieves their status through their own efforts and abilities. It is not where you come from but what you can do that gives you your position in society
        
        Equal opportunity for every individual to achieve their full power
        Society in miniature: School is a miniature version of wider society - both are meritocratic. In school, indviduals succeed or fail depending on their own ability and effort. This prepares them for life in modern society and its economy, which is competitive and individualistic
    - - For Davis and Moore (1945), the main function of education is role allocation - the selection and allocation of individuals to their future work roles. They present a functionalist explanation of social stratification as follows:
        
        Some people are more talented than others
        
        Some work roles are more complex than others and require greater skill
        
        For society to function effciently, the most talented individuals need to be allocated to most important jobs
        
        Higher rewards are offered for these jobs to motivate everyone to strive for them
        
        A mertiocratic education system allows everyone to compete equally. It 'sifts and sorts' individuals so that the most talented get the best qualifications and are allocated to the most important jobs
        
        As a result, society is more productive because the most able people do the most important jobs.
        Human capital theory This is a similar idea to Davis and Moore's view. Modern industrial society is technologically advanced, so the skills of its workforce are its main economic asset or 'capital'. A meritocratic education system is the best way to develop a suffciently skilled workforce and thus create greater economic effeciency and higher living standards.
    - - Marxists argue that the values transmitted by education are not society's shared values, but rather those of the ruling class
        
        Education is not meritocratic, because schools discriminate against some groups (e.g. WC and black pupils) and dont give them an equal opportunity to achieve
        
        Hargreaves (1982) argues that schools place more value on competition and developing individuals than on developing a sense of social solidarity, as Durkheim claims
        
        It is sometimes difficult to see a direct link between the subjects studied at school and what is required of workers in their jobs. Education doesn't necessarily equip people for future work roles.
        
        Interactionists argue that the functionalist view of socialisation is too deterministic. Not all pupils passively accept the school's values - some reject and rebel against them
  - - - New right ideas are similar to those of functionalism:
        
        they believe that some people are naturally more talented than others
        
        they agree with functionalist education, should be run on meritocratic principles of open competition
        
        they believe that education should socialise pupils into shared values and provide a sense of national identity
        In addition, the new right believe the older industrial societies, such as Britain are in decline, partly as a result of increase global economic competition
    - - Neoliberalism believes the state should not provide education. A free-market economy encourages competition and drives up standards. Schools should be more like businesses and operate in an education market
    - - The new right is more of a political than a sociological perspective however, the new right is of interest to sociologists because:
        
        it is a more recent conservative view than functionalism
        
        it has influenced educational policy in Britain and elsewhere
  - - - for the new right, the issue is how to make schools more responsive to their consumers. in their view, the solution is the marketisation of education. Marketisation is the introduction into areas run by the states (such as education, or the NHS) of market forces of consumer choice and competition between suppliers (such as schools or hospitals).
        The new right argue that creating an education market forces schools to respond to the needs of peoples parents and employers. For example, competition with other schools means that teachers have to be more efficient. A school‘s survival depends on its ability to raise the achievement level of its pupils.
    - - Chubb and Moes (1990) data shows that peoples from low income families do about 5% better in private schools. This suggests that state education is not meritocratic.
        
        Education has failed to create equal opportunity because it does not have to respond to peoples needs
        
        Parents and communities cannot do anything about failing schools, while the schools are being controlled by the state
        
        Private schools deliver higher quality education because they are answerable to paying consumers – the parents
        The solution Chubb and Moe’s answer to the suppose inefficiency of state schools is introducing market system in state education - that is, give control to consumers (parents and local communities). this should be done via a voucher system in which each family would be given about to spend on buying education from a school of their choice.
    - - although the new right want to reduce the states role in education, they do you still see a limited role for it:
        
        it should create the framework for competition between schools (e.g. publishing league tables of exam results, and by setting a national curriculum that all schools must teach.)
        
        The state still has to ensure the schools transmit society said culture through curriculum that emphasises in shared national identity (through the teaching of British history)
    - - Although school standards – as measured by exam results – seem to have risen, there are other possible reasons for this improvement, apart from the introduction of a market
        
        Critics argue that low standards in some state schools are the results of inadequate funding rather than state control of education
        
        Gewirtz argues that can competition between schools benefits, the middle class who can get their children into more desirable schools
        
        Marxists argue that education imposes the culture of a ruling class, not a shared culture or a national identity as the new right argue
    - - One size fits all: new right arguments are based on the belief that the state cannot meet peoples needs in a state run education system, education inevitably ends up as ‘one size fits all’ that does not meet the individual and community needs or the needs of the employers for skilled and motivated workers
        Lower standards: state-run schools are not accountable to those who use them - pupils, parents and employers - and so they are inefficient. Schools they get poor results, do not change because they are not answerable to their consumers. The result is lowest standards and less qualified workforce.
  - - - Controls peoples ideas, values and beliefs. The ISA includes religion, the mass media and the education system.
      - The education system performs two functions as an ISA:
        
        Reproduction: education reproduces class inequality by failing each generation of working class pupils in turn, and thereby ensuring that they end up in the same kind of jobs as their parents
        
        Legitimation: education legitimises class inequality by producing ideologies that disguise its true cause.
        Education tries to conceive people that inequality is inevitable, and that failure is the fault of the individual, not the capitalist system
    - - when necessary to protect the capitalist interests, the state uses force to repress the working class via the police, courts and army
  - - - According to Bowles and Gintis, schooling takes place in ‘the long shadow of work’. The relationships and structures found in education, mirror or correspond to those of work.
        In capitalist society, school is like work in many ways
    - - School:
        
        Alienation - pupils lack control over education
        
        Hierarchy of authority: head > teachers > pupils
        
        Extrinsic satisfaction (rewards) rather than from interest in the subjects studies
        
        Fragmentation of knowledge into unconnected subjects
        
        Competition and divisions among pupils
        Work:
        
        Alienation through workers lack of control over production
        
        Hierarchy of authority: boss > supervisor > workers
        
        Extrinsic rewards - pay, not satisfaction from the job itself
        
        Fragmentation of work into small, meaningless tasks
        
        Competition and divisions among workers - differences in status and pay
    - - The correspondence principle operates through the hidden curriculum – all the lessons that I learnt in school without being directly taught. Through that every day workings of the school, people, except hierarchy, competition, alienation, et cetera. He become simply the normal way to think.
    - - The education system helps her event people from recognising their exploited position and rebelling against the system, by legitimising class inequalities.
        It does this by producing ideologies that explain why inequality is fair, natural and/or inevitable
        The education system creates many myths, including the ‘myth of meritocracy’. Functionalists argue the education and the world of work are both meritocratic, because in their view, everyone has an equal opportunity to achieve. Those who get in the highest rewards deserve them because they are the most able and hard-working.
        However, Bowles and Gintis argue that this is a myth. In reality, success is based on a class background, not ability or educational achievement. But by promoting the (untrue) claim that rewards are based on ability, the myth of meritocracy helps to persuade workers to accept inequality and their subordinate position as legitimate.
    - - Bowles and Gintis reject the functionalist claim that education allocates the most talented people meritocratically to the most important and best rewarded roles. Their research found that it was obedient students who got the best grades, not those who are nonconformist or creative thinkers. That is, the education system rewards those who conform to the quality is required of the future workforce.
    - - According to Bowles and Gintis, capitalism needs workers with the kind of obedient attitudes, and submissive personality type that is willing to accept hard work, low pay and authority
        Like Althusser, they see the role of education system in capitalist society as reproducing an obedient, exploitable workforce that will accept social inequality as inevitable and fair. To achieve this, successive generations of workers need these ideas firmly planted in their minds – and this is the function of the education system
        Bowles and Gintis argue that there is a close correspondence between relationships in school, and those found in the workplace.This similarly creates new generations of workers ready to accept their lot and serve capitalism
  - - - Some Marxists have claimed that recent educational policies in the UK, make their analysis of the role of education, even more relevant today
        
        marketisation policies, the privatisation of some educational services, business sponsorship of state schools, result in more direct capitalist control over education and training
        
        not only does the education system function to provide a winning workforce for capitalism, but increasingly it does so while making profits for capitalists
    - - Using qualitative methods, Willis (1977) culture of “the lads” – a group of 12 working-class boys – as they made the transition from school to work
        Willis rejects Bowles and Gintis’ version of the correspondence principle.
        Rather than the lads passively accepting ruling class ideology (such as the myth of meritocracy), he found the working class pupils may resist attempts to indoctrinate them in school. They are able to partially see through the meritocratic ideology that claims working-class people can get on through hard work.
        The counter-school culture The lads formed a distinct counter culture that was opposed to the school. They flouted the schools rules though smoking and disrupting classes. For the lads, such acts of defiance were ways of resisting the schools authority.
        This anti school counter culture is similar to the shopfloor culture of male manual workers. The lads identify strongly with male manual work and this explains why they see themselves as superior both to girls and to the effeminate conformist pupils who aspire to non-manual jobs.
        For Willis, the irony is that by resisting the schools ideology, the lads’ counter school culture guarantees that they will fail, thereby ensuring that they will end up in manual work that capitalism needs people to perform. Thus, their resistance to school ends up reproducing class inequality.
- - - - since the 1960s, feminists have challenged the patriarchy and rejected the traditional stereotypes of women as inferior to men
      - feminists have had an impact on womens rights and oppotunities through campaigns to win changes in the law e.g. equal pay
      - feminists ideas are likely to influence girls self-image and aspirations, making them more motivated in education
    - - studies show that there has been a significant shift in how girls see themselves and their future
      - sharpe (1994): compared two studies of WC girls in the 1970s and 90s. She found that girls in the 1970s priorities were love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers more or less in that order
        however, the priorities of the 1990 girls had switched to careers and being independent
      - beck and beck-gernsheim (2001) argue that independence is valued more than in the past, a career has become part of womens life project
    - - there have been major changes in the family since the 1970s:
        :star: an increase into divorce rate, about 40% of marriages end in divorce
        :star: more lone parent families, over 90% of which are female headed
        :star: more cohabitation and a decrease in first marriages
        :star: smaller families and women are staying single
        these changes have cause more women to becoming financially independent, which gives more motivation for young girls to do well academically
    - - there are now more employment oppotunities for women than before, womens employment has risen from under half of married women in 1950s to about three quarters today
      - changes in law have also improved the position of working women:
        :star: the 1970 equal pay act and the 1975 sex discrimination act give women more employment rights
        :star: since 1975, the pay gap between men and women has almost halved
  - - - feminist ideas are now widespread in the education system, for example the belief that boys and girls are equally capable and should have the same oppotunities is now widely accepted and it has become a social norm
      - this has led to policies such as:
        :star: GIST and WISE programmes to encourage girls into science and technology
        :star: the national curriculum, introduced in 1988, means that girls and boys now largely study the same subjects
      - meritocracy: as a result of these policies, education is now more meritocratic, now that girls have equal oppotunities, they area able to do better
    - - there are now more female teachers and head teachers than in the past and these provide positive, pro-educational role models for girls
      - the presence of more female teachers also feminises the learning environment and encourages girls to see school as part of a 'female gender domain', as a result girls may percieve educational success as a desirable feminine characteristic
    - - mitsos and browne (1998) said the girls do better than boys in coursework, because they are more conscientious and better organised, girls mature earlier and can concentrate for longer
      - gorard (2005) found that the gender gap in achievement increased sharply when GCSE was introduced in 1988, because coursework was a major part of most subjects
    - - studies of reading schemes, textbooks and other learning materials have shown that in the past, women were both under-represented and were portrayed as subordinate to men in domestic roles of unsuited to certain subjects
      - however, since the 1980s many of these sexist images have been removed and replaced with more positive images of women, this may have an impact on girls perceptions of what women can do and thus, they may raise their aspirations
    - - spender (1983) found that teachers spent more time interacting with boys than with girls, however more recent studies suggest girls may benefit more than boys
      - french and french (1993) found that teachers paid boys and girls similar amounts of attention for academic reasons, but boys recieved more attention overall because they attracted more punishments for misbehaviour
    - - marketisation policies such as publication of exam 'league tables' have led to competition between schools. schools have an incentive to try to try to recruit more able students in order to boost thier results and league table position
        :star2: girls are generally more successful than boys, so they are more attractive to schools
        :star2: boys are lower-achieving and more badly-behavioured (they are four times more likely to be excluded than girls). schools see them as liabilty students who will give them a bad image and produce poor results
        
        as a result girls are more likely to get places in successful schools, in turn girls get a better education allowing them to achieve more
        
        liberal feminists welcome the progress made by equal oppotunities policies, radical feminist are more critical
    - - working-class girls underachieve and Archer (2010) claims this is because of a conflict between their feminine identities and the school's habitus, they face a choice: gain symbolic capital from peers by conforming to a working-class feminine identity, or gain educational capital from peers by conforming to the school's middle class notions of the ideal female pupil
        :star: hyper-heterosexual feminine identities - many girls contruct 'glamorous' identities that earn symbollic capital from their female peers but cause conflict with school over their appearance, the school commits symbollic violence, defining the girls culture as worthless
        :star: ladettes adopting a tomboyish, 'nike' identity, being sporty, turanting and getting excluded
        :star: being-loud adopting outspoken, assertive identities, teacher see this aggressive
    - - some working-class girls do succeed, but Evans (2009) found they may still be disadvantaged by their gender and class identities
        
        girls wanted to go to uni to increase their earning power and help their families
      - they chose to live at home, reflecting their working-class families habitus, but the cost of living away and fear of debt was a further reason, and this limited their choices and future earning power
  - - - one reason for boys lagging behind is their poorer literacy skills
        :star: parents spend less time reading to sons and it is mainly mothers who read to young children and so reading is seen as a feminine activity
        :star: boys' leisure interests (e.g. sport and computer games) dont encourage language and communications skills, whereas girls' 'bedroom culture' does
        
        because language and literacy are important in most subjects, boys' poorer skills have a wide-ranging effect on their achievement
    - - since the 1980s, globalisation has led to much manufacturing industry relocating to developing countries, leading to a decline in heavy industries like shipbuilding, mining, and manufacturing in the UK
        
        some argue that the resulting decline in male employment oppotunities has led to a male 'identity crisis', with a loss of motivation and self-esteem
        
        many boys now believe they have little prospect of getting jobs and so cease trying to get qualifications
    - - Sewell (2006) argues that boys fall behind because education has become 'feminised'.
        schools no longer nurture 'masculine' traits e.g. competitiveness and leadership
        :star: some argue that assessment has been feminised by the introduction of coursework and this disadvantages boys
        :star: lack of male primary school teachers: only 1 in 6 primary school teachers are men and over 60% of 8-11 year old boys have no lessons with no male teachers, this may give boys the idea that education is a feminised activity
        
        Read (2008) critisises the claim that only male teachers can exert the firm discipline boys need
    - - the increase in the number of female-headed lone parent families (around 1.5 million) means that now many boys grow up lacking a positive male role model who goes out to work to support a family, these boys may thus be less likely to see the value of employment and therefore also qualifications
    - - studies show that there is peer pressure on boys to demonstrate their masculinity by being anti-school:
        :star: Francis (2001) found that boys were more concerned than girls about being labelled by peers as swots, because this threatens their masculine identity, WC culture sees non-manual work as effeminate and inferior
        :star: Epstein (1998) found that pro-school WC boys were likely to be harassed, labelled as 'gay' and subjected to verbal abuse
        
        as girls move into traditional masculine areas such as paid work, boys become more 'laddish' in an effort to identify themselves as non-feminine and this leads to under-achievement
    - - concerns about boys under-achievemnt relative to girls has led to the introduction of a range of policies
        these often use boys leisure interests and famous male role models and are aimed at improving boys literacy skills and motivation to achieve, examples are Raising Boys Achievement, the Reading Champions scheme and Playing for Success
        the moral panic about boys - Ringrose (2013) argues that the moral panic about 'failing boys' has led to neglect of problems faced by girls e.g. sexual harassment and stereotyped subject choices
  - - - several factors are responsible for gender differences in subject choice:
        :star: early socialisation and gender domains
        :star: gendered subject images
        :star: gender identity and peer pressure
        :star: gendered career oppotunities
    - - tasks and activites seen as either male or female 'territory' e.g. looking after an elderly person is seen as female
        
        these views are shaped by childrens early experiences and by the expectation of adults
        
        Browne and Ross (1991) found that when set open-ended tasks such as designing a boat, boys designed powerboats and battleships, while girls designed cruise ships, reflecting different gender domains
    - - related to gender domains, subjects have a gendered image - they are seen as male or female
        
        for example, science is mainly taught by men and textbooks traditionally use boys interests as examples, as a result it is seen as a masculine subject, part of the male gender domain, so is taken mostly by boys
    - - other boys and girls pressurise individuals to conform
        
        boys often opt out of music because of negative peer response, while girls who choose sport have to contend with accusations from boys of being 'butch' or 'lesbian'
        
        this also links to subject image and gender domain - sport is seen as masculine and music is seen as feminine
    - - many job are seen as either 'mens' or 'womens' and tend to be dominated by one gender - e.g. nursing and construction work
        
        vocational courses prepare young people for specific careers, therefore also tend ot be dominated by one gender or the other
        
        WC pupils may make decisions about courses based on traditional gender identity
    - - although girls have overtaken boys in achievement, there continue to be major gender differences in subject choice, girls and boys follow different 'gender routes' in their subject choices
        :star: in the national curriculum, most subjects are compulsory, but where choice is possible, girls and boys choose differently; e.g. in design and technology, girls choose food technology, boys choose resistant materials
        :star: in post-16 education, there is more choice avaliable and big gender differences emerge; e.g. boys opt for maths and physics while girls choose modern languages, English and sociology, this pattern continues into higher education
        :star: in vocational subjects, gender segregation is at its greatest; only 1% of contruction apprentices are female
    - - :star: in the family, from an early age, boys and girls are dressed differently and given different toys, while boys are rewarded for being active and girls being passive
        :star: at school, Bryne (1979) found, teachers encourage boys to be so tough and show initiative, while they expect girls to be quiet, helpful, clean and tidy
        :star: leisure reading and subject choice, Murphy and Elwood (1998) found that boys read hobby books and information texts and so prefer science subjects, while girls read stories about people and prefer english
  - - - name calling puts girls down if they behave in certain ways and acts as a form of social control to make them conform to male expectation
        :star: Lees (1986) notes that boys call girls 'slags' if they appear sexually avaliable, but there is no equivilant form for males
        :star: Mac an Ghaill (1992) found that anti-school WC boys' subcultures use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity, they called other WC boys who worked hard 'dickhead achievers'
    - - Haywood and Mac an Ghaill (1996) found that male teachers reinforced gender identities by telling off boys for 'behaving like girls' and ignoring boys verbal abuse of girls
    - - the male gaze is a form of social control where male pupils and teachers look girls up an down as sexual objects, boys who dont participate may be labelled as 'gay' - also a form of social control
    - - this exists when one set of moral standards is applied to one group but a different set to another group
        
        for example, Lees (1933) found that boys boast about their own sexual exploits, but label girls negatively for the same behaviour
    - - Archer found working-class girls gain symbollic capital by performing a hyper-heterosexual identity
        
        female peers police this identity and girls risk being called a 'tramp' if they fail to conform
        
        Ringrose (2013) found WC girls faced tension between an idealised feminine identity (loyalty to the peer group) and a sexualised identity (competing for boys)
        
        slut-shaming and frigid-shaming are social control labels with which they police each other's identities
    - - pupils school experiences may reinforce their gender and sexual indentities
        :star: Connell (1995) argues that school reproduces 'hegemonic masculinity' - the dominance of heterosexual masculine identity and subordination of female and gay identities
        :star: feminists argue that experiences in school act as a form of social control to reproduce patriarchy, male domination and female subordination
        :star: this happens in many of the following ways:
- - - - WC parents are less likely to give their children educational toys and books that will stimulate their cognitive skills, this effects their intellectual development so when they begin school, they are disadvantaged
    - - basil bernstein (1975) came up with restricted and elaborated code:
        restricted code is used by the WC: its less analytic and more descriptive, it has a limited vocabulary and is formed of simple sentences or even just gestures
        elaborated code is used by the MC: more analytic, with a wider vocabulary and complex sentences
        
        elaborated code is mainly used within educational contexts such as university and teaching, giving MC kids an advantage
    - - feinstein (2008) argues that parents own education is the most important factor affecting childrens achievement
      - parenting style: educated parents emphasise consistent discipline, high expectations, active learning and exploration, less educated parents may have inconsistent discipline meaning children may have poor motivation and issues w teacher interaction
      - parents educational behaviours: educated parents hold more knowledge around education and are more aware of what might help children in learning
      - language: the way parents communicate affect childrens cognitive development
      - use of income: educated parents may spend their income to promote childrens development, e.g. educational toys
    - - immediate gratification: wanting rewards now rather than making sacrifices and working hard for future rewards
      - fatalism: a belief that "whatever will be, will be", working class children dont believe they can improve their position through their own efforts
      - low value on education: hyman argues that the WC dont value education, so they dont try to succeed
    - - :no_entry: it ignores the importance of material factors such as poverty
        :no_entry: it ignores the impact of school factors e.g. labelling
        :no_entry: it blames the victim for their failure
  - - - poorer families cant afford educational oppotunities such as trips, computers, private tuition
      - callender and jackson (2005) found that WC students are more debt averse, they saw more cons than pros in going to university (e.g. tuition fees) which influenced their decisions
    - - bordieu (1984) argues that MC pupils are more successful than WC pupils because their parents possess more capital or assets
      - economic capital: the wealth that MC families hold
        cultural capital: the attitudes, values, norms, skills and knowledge of the MC
        educational capital: the MC use their greater economic and cultural capital to give their children an advantage by using it to obtain educational capital - qualifications, which allows their children to get MC jobs and more educational capital, reproducing this through the generations
    - - overcrowding or cold and damp rooms mean pupils have no study space to do homework and revision, similarly being homeless or in temporary accomodation may mean frequent school changes which is disruptive to education
    - - can lead to illness, absences from school and lack of concentration in class due to hunger
  - - - definition: the meanings or definitions we we attach to someone or something to make sense of them (e.g. MC pupils are labelled as "bright" or "motivated")
      - becker (1961): argues that teachers label MC children as 'ideal pupils' and prefer to teach them rather than WC pupils
    - - definition: a prediction made about someone or something that comes true simply because its been made
      - teachers can create these through the labels that are placed onto the students
    - - defintion: an extreme and institutionalised form of labelling, it works by putting all students of a similar ability into the same class for all subjects, "bright" pupils are placed in top sets and "thick" kids are placed in bottom sets
      - lacey (1970) describes streaming as 'differentiation'**, a way of separating the sheep from the goats and then educating them differently
      - douglas found that the IQ of the pupils labelled as less able and placed in a bottom stream actually fell over time, whereas pupils of the top set increased
    - - definition: a subculture is a group whose beliefs, value and attitudes differ to some extent from the culture of wider society, pupils may form their own subcultures as a response to labelling
      - anti-school subculture: often formed by students in lower sets, they reject schools value, they dislike school and misbehave, flouting the rules
      - pro-school subculture: usually formed by pupils in higher streams, they accept schools values and goals of hard work, regular attendence and respect for teachers and the rules, enjoying school
      - lacey: argues that lower-stream pupils form or join anti-school subcultures because school deprives them of status due to labelling, therefore these students create their own status hierarchy, meaning they gain status from their peers by rejecting school
    - - archer (2010) uses bourdieu's concept of habitus to understand the relationship between pupils WC identities and underachievement
      - habitus: is a social class's habitual ways of thinking, being and acting (e.g. lifestyles and expectations about what is normal for 'people like us')
      - symbolic capital and symbolic violence: school commits symbolic violence by devaluing WC pupils', judging their clothing, accent, interest etc tasteless, illegitmate and inferior, and denying them symbolic capital
      - 'nike' identities: symbolic violence leads pupils to create alternative class identities and gain symbolic capital from peers through consuming branded goods, however this leads to conflict with the MC pupils habitus
      - 'losing yourself': succeeding at school means being inauthentic, changing how you presented yourself to fit in
- - - - Most researchhas focuses on ethnic minority families, but white working class pupils also under-achieve. This may be because they have lower aspirations than many other ethnic groups and this may be the result of white WC culture, including a lack of parental support. There is evidence to support this view.
        :star: Lupton (2004) studied four mainly WC schools with different ethnic compositions. Teachers reported poorer levels of behaviour and discipline in the white WC schools, which they linked to lower levels of parental support and the negative attitudes of white WC parents towards education
        :star: Evans (2006) argues that street culture in white WC areas can be brutal and brought into school. The result is a strong pressure to reject education.
    - - Differences in attitudes and values towards education may be the result of differences in socialisation. Most children are socialised into the mainstream culture which instils competitveness and a desire to achieve, thus equiping them for success in education
        :star: Fatalism and immediate gratification Cultural deprivation theorists claim that the subculture into which some black children are socialised is fatalistic and focused on immediate gratification, resulting in a lack of motivation to succeed
        :star: The lack of a male role model at home for many African-Caribbean boys may encourage them to turn an anti-educational macho 'gang culture'. The New Right thinker Murray (1984) argues that the high rate of lone parenthood and a lack of positive male role models lead to the under-achievement of some minority pupils
        :star: Culture of poverty Moynihan (1965) argues that Black Caribbean culture is less resistant to racism because of the experience of slavery. As a result, many black pupils have low self-esteem and under-achieve
        :star: Asian families Sewell argues that Chinese and Indian pupils benefit from supportive families with an 'Asian work ethic'. He contrasts this with black lone-parent families
        :star: Fathers, gangs and cultures Sewell (2009) argues that lack of fatherly nuturing leads to black boys underachieving. Street gangs offer them alternative perverse loyalty and love. Academically successful black boys felt the greatest barrier to success was peer pressure. Speaking Standard English and doing well at school were seen as 'selling out'
    - - :star: Cultural deprivation theory claims that children from low-income black families lack intellectual stimulation. As a result, they fail to develop reasoning and problem-solving skills
        :star: Bereiter and Engelmann claim that the language of poorer black Ameircan families is ungrammatical and disjointed. As a result, their children are unable to express abstract ideas - a major barrier to educational progress
        :star: some claim that children who do not speak English at home may be held back educationally. However, this is not a major factor
    - - Compensatory education is an educational policy that aims to counter the effects of cultural deprivation
        :star: Operation Head Start in the USA was established to compensate children for the cultural deficit they are said to suffer because of deprived backgrounds
        :star: Sure Start in the UK aims to support the development of pre-school children in deprived areas
    - - :no_entry: Victim-blaming Keddie argues that it is a victim-blaming explanation. Minority ethnic group children are culturally different, not culturally deprived, and they under-achieve because schools are ethnocentric - biased in favour of white culture
        :star: Cultural exclusion Ball argues that minority ethnic group parents are at a disadvantage because they are less aware of how to negotiate the British education system. This results in 'cultural exclusion' rather than cultural deprivation. According to Gerwirtz, complex school application forms are an example of cultural exclusion practices in some schools
        :star: Cultural domination Compensatory education imposes the dominant white middle-class culture on minority ethnic group pupils. own culture
  - - - While material deprivation among minority ethnic groups clearly affects pupils achievement, it may itself be the product of racism in wider society. Members of minority ethnic groups face direct and indirect discrimination at work and in the housing market.
        As a result, they are more likely to have low pay or be unemplyed, and this affects their children's educational oppotunities
  - - - Interactionists focus on small-scale, face-to-face interactions, such as those between pupils and teachers. They are interested in the impact of the labels that teachers give to children from different ethnic backgrounds e.g. black pupils are often seen as disruptive and Asian pupils as passive.
        As a result of these negative racist labels, teachers may treat ethnic minority pupils differently, disadvantaging them and bringing about a self-fulfilling prophecy that leads to their under-achievement. Sociologists have studied labelling in relation to both black and Asian pupils.
      - :star: Gillborn and Mirza (2000) found that in one area, black children were the highest achievers on entering primary school (20 points above average), yet by the time it came to GCSE, they had fallen to 21 points below the average. This suggests schooling, not background, is to blame
        Gillborn and Youdell found teachers had 'radicalised expectations' (labels) about black pupils and expected more discipline problems and saw their behaviour as threatening. Black pupils were more likely than others to be punished for the same behaviour. The pupils felt that their teachers underestimated their ability and picked on them.
        Gillborn and Youdell conclude that conflict between white teachers and black pupils stems from the racist stereotypes that teachers have, rather than from the pupils actual behaviour. This can cause underachievement because it leads to:
        
        Higher levels of exclusions of black boys
        
        Black pupils being placed in lower set or streams
      - :star: Wright (1992) found that Asian primary school pupils were stereotyped by their teachers and treated differently:
        
        Teachers assumed the children would have a poor grasp of English and so they used simplistic language when speaking to them
        
        They mispronounced children's names
        
        They saw them as a problem they could ignore
        As a result, Asian pupils, especially the girls, were marginalised and prevented from participating fully, affecting their self-esteem
        Connolly (1998) found that primary school teachers saw Asian pupils as passive and conformist. Both teachers and pupils saw Asian boys as more 'feminine', vulnerable and less able to protect themselves
    - - Pupils may react in a variety of different ways to racist labelling in school, including forming or joining pupil subcultures. Sewell (1998) found that black boys adopted a range of responses to teachers racist labelling of them as rebellious and anti-school.
        
        Conformists were the largest group. They were keen to succeed, accepted the school's goals and had friends from different ethnic groups.
        
        Innovators were the second largest group. They were pro-education but anti-school. They valued success, but not teachers approval
        
        Retreatists were a tiny minority of isolated individuals disconnected from both the school and black subcultures outside it.
        
        Rebels were a small but highly visible minority of black pupils. They rejected the schools goals and rules and conformed instead to the stereotype of the 'black macho lad'. They despised both white boys and conformist black boys. Their aim was to achieve the status of 'street food'
        However, despite only a small minority of black boys actually fitting the stereotype of the 'black macho lad', teachers tended to see them all in this way. This resulted in the under-achievement of many boys, not just the rebels, as a result of discrimination by teachers.
        However, Sewell argues that factors external to school, such as peer groups, street culture and the lack of a nurturing father, are more important in producing underachievement than internal factors.
      - Rejecting negative labels
        
        Studies show that not all minority ethnic pupils who are negatively labelled accept and conform to the label. Some may remain committed to succeeding despite racist labelling.
        
        Fuller (1984) studied a group og high-achieving black girls in year 11 of a London comprehensive. The girls maintained a positive self-image by rejecting teachers stereotypes of them. They recognised the value of education and were determined to achieve, but only conformed in terms of doing their schoolwork, working hard without giving the appearance of doing so. They didn't seek the teachers approval, and they maintained friendships with black girls in lower streams. In some ways they are similar to the innovators in Sewell's study.
        
        Mac an Ghaill's (1992) study of black and Asian 'A' level students at a sixth form college found that they did not necessarily accept teachers negative labels e.g. some girls felt that the all-girls school they had previously attended gave them a greater academic commitment.
        However, Mirza (1992) found that black girls strategies for dealing with teachers racism, e.g. not asking certain staff for help, sometimes restricted their oppotunities. Even though they did not accept the labels, they were still disadvantaged as a result.
    - - Many sociologists argue that although the racist labelling practised by some teachers is important, it is not an adequate explanation for the widespread ethnic differences found in achievement. Instead, they argue, we must focus on institutional racism - discrimination against ethnic minorities that is built into the way institutions such as schools and colleges operate on a routine or even unconscious basis, rather than the conscioous intentions of individual teacher.
        :star: Critical race theory (CRT)*: CRT sees institutional racism as a deep-rooted, 'locked in' feature of the education system. Critical race theorists see the education system as institutionally racist in several ways
        
        :star: The ethnocentric curriculum: This is an important example of insititutional racism. 'Ethnocentric' refers to an attitude or policy that prioritises the culture of one particular ethnic group while disregarding or downgrade others. Many sociologists have argued that the curriculum of British schools is ethnocenntric
        .
        
        Troyna and Williams note that it gives priority to white culture and the English language
        
        David argues that the National Curriculum is a 'specifically British' curriculum that teaches the culture of the 'host community'
        
        Ball sees the history curriculum in British schools as recreating a 'mythical age of empire and past glories', while at the same time ignoring the history of black and Asian people.
        The result may be that minority ethnic group pupils feel that they and their culture and identity are not valued in education and this diminishes their sense of self-esteem, which a negative effect on their educational achievement.
        
        Other example of institutional racism include:
        
        Selection and segregation Gillborn (1997) argues that because marketisation gives schools more scope to select pupils, negative stereotypes can influence decisions about admissions. Moore and Davenport's (1990) American research shows how selection procedures (e.g. using primary school reports to screen out pupils) leads to ethnic segregation.
        
        Assessment Gillborn argues that assessment is rigged to validate the dominant white culture's superiority. For example, baseline assessments showing black pupils ahead of whites were replaced in 2003 by thr foundation stage profils, which is based on teachers judgements and thus gives scope for stereotyping. As a result, black pupils appeared to be doing worse than whites
        
        Access to opportunities, whites are over twice as likely as black pupils to be indentified as gifted and talented. Tikly (2006) and Strand (2012) found black people were more likely to be entered for lower tier exams - often because they had been placed in lower sets due to teachers expectations, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy
        
        The new IQism, Secondary schools are increasingly using old-style intelligence tests to allocate pupils to different streams on entry, based on the false assumption that 'potenial' fixed quality that can be measured. Black pupils are more likely to be placed in lower streams as a result.
- - - - the tripartite system introduced in 1944 had two main types of secondary school, with selection by the 11+ exam
        
        most middle-class pupils passed 11+ and went to grammar schools, which had an academic curriculum
        
        most WC pupils failed and attended secondary modern schools, which had a practical skills curriculum, that all pupils took the same test
        legitmated the resultant class inequality
        
        the comprehensive system introduced from 1965 abolished the 11+ , all pupils attended the same local comprehensive schools, but some area did not go comprehensive and there are still 164 grammar schools in england
        :star: functionalists see comprehensives as metrocratic because they give pupils longer to develop by not selecting at elevens, some see comprehensives promoting integration by bringing all social classes together in one school
        :star: marxists see comprehensive reproducing inequality through streaming and labelling, they legitimate inequality by the 'myth of mertiocracy', making it look like everyone has an equal opppotunity
    - - educational policies are government strategies for education, introduced through legal changes and instructions to schools
        
        until the 19th century, education was only provided by church or private schools
        
        however, industrialisation created a need for an educated and trained workforce and this led to the development of complusory state-run education
  - - - new labour maintained marketisation policies to reduce inequality, these included city academies, Education Action Zones and aim higher programs in disadvantaged areas; education maintainance allowances for poorer 16-18 year olds and increase spending on state education
    - - :star: the policies are contradictory e.g. EMAs help poorer pupils stay on post-16, but they now have to pay university tuition fees
        :star: new labour has lef the private education system untouched
        :star: 'choice' and 'diversity' are just nice ways of saying 'inequality' - the education market ensures WC pupils remain disadvantaged
        :star: on the other hand, more education spending and a focus on a 'learning society' have been genuine achievements, evidence that academies have raised standards is mixed - some show improved results, others dont
    - - :star: league tables mean schools with good results can 'cream-skim' the best pupils
        
        less successful schools end up with less able pupils
        :star: the funding formula, schols are funded on how many pupils they recruit, so good schools get more money, can improve staff/facilities and attract more pupils
        :star: parental choice, Gerwirtz identifies MC privileged-skilled choosers with the economic and cultural capital to take advantage of the system; WC disconnected-local choosers who lack capital and have to settle for the nearest school; and ambitious WC semi-skilled choosers frustrated by their inability to get the school they wanted
        :star: the myth of parentocracy, marketisation also legitmates inequality, by making it look as if all parents are equally free to choose a good school
    - - marketisation means introducing market forces of consumer choice and competition into areas run by the state such as education, creating an 'education market'
      - marketisation policies have become a central theme since the 1988 Education Reform Act, they include league tables, open enrolment, formula finding, opting out of LEA control, free schools, academies, business sponsorship
        parentocracy supporters claim these policies give parents greater choice and raise standards
  - - - there are two types of marketisation: an internal market within the education system and the privatisation of state education, here the state ceases to be the provider of education, instead it commissions private companies to provide services. privatisation has been a growing trend in years
        :star: academies, all schools are encouraged to become academies funded by central government, some academies are part of privately-owned chains, removing academies from local authority control means loss of democratic accountability
        :star: free schools are state funded but set up and run by parents, teachers religious groups or businesses
        :star: fragmented centralisation - Ball argues that we now have a fragmented patchwork instead of the comprehensive system, leading to greater inequality. education is also now more centralised: government can require schools to become academies and allow free schools to be set up
        :star: spending cuts, since 2010 there have been major cuts in government spending e.g. on Sure Start, school building, the EMA, plus increases in university fees. In some cases, cuts have cancelled out the Pupil Premium schools receive for disadvantaged pupils
    - - :star: Education as a privatised commodity Ball argues that education is ceasing to be a public good, instead it is being privatised: turned into a commodity owned by private companies and bought and sold in an education market. Education becomes a source of profit for capitalists, including school building, Ofsted inspections, providing supply teachers, even running entire local education authorities. Hall sees this as the 'long march of the neoliberal revolution'
        :star: Blurring the public/private boundary Many senior public sector employees, such as senior civil servants and head teachers, move into private sector education businesses, bringing 'insider knowledge' to hep win contracts
        :star: Globalisation of policy Many education companies are foreign-owned. Some UK edu-businesses work overseas, privatising and exporting UK education policy for sale abroad. Nation-state are becoming less important in policy-making, which is becoming globalised
        :star: Cola-isation of schools The private sector sells to pupils through vending machines in schools, develops brand loyalty through logos, sponsorships and voucher schemes. However, the benefit to schools are often limited
    - - :star: Policies relating to ethnicity have gone through three stages. In the 1960s and 70s, the aim was to encourage assimilation e.g. through English as a Second Language programmes. In the 1980s and 1990s, the aim switched to valuing all cultures through multi-cultural educational policies such as black studies in the mainstream curriculum. More recently, the focus has been on social inclusion, e.g. the legal duty on schools to promote racial equality, but Mirza critisises even the more recent policies as being too limited in scope.
        :star: Gender and policy There are have been a number of important policies aimed at reducing gender inequalities in achievement and at promoting non-traditional subject choices