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AMCC5103: Theory of Career Dev, 7.4 CAREER COUNSELLING IMPLICATIONS IN …

- - - - an individual's journey through life involving learning, working and various other qualities of life. May define it as an individual’s profession over a substantial period of time with opportunities for advancement.
        EXAMPLE
        Suppose Siti gets a job as a cleaner with Beauty Water Sdn. Bhd. After a few years, she is promoted to technical assistant. Subsequently a few years later, she runs her department as technical manager. Eventually, she is CEO of the waste water company. All these make up Siti’s career. Often that is what a career is about, progressing forward towards an objective.
    - - We often use the words “career” and “job” interchangeably.
      - As discussed earlier, a career entails years of working involving a few positions.
      - A job, however, is any paid employment. It is something we do for money in the short term. So if Siti is working as a waitress or a cashier temporarily, it is a job and not part of her career.
    - - Occupation is a broad category of jobs having similar characteristics like skills or work responsibilities.
        An individual can be working for different employers in his or her occupation (e.g. doctor, plumber, carpenter, and biotechnologist).
    - - It is a “continuous lifelong process of developmental experiences that focuses on seeking, obtaining and processing information about self, occupational and educational alternatives, lifestyles and role options”, as defined by Prediger and Hanson (1976).
      - Our career development is about how we want to live our life, not just pursuing our dream jobs.
      - It is a lifetime activity involving the management of our life, learning and earning to get to where we want to be. What we decide each day, how we spend our time and what we prioritise affect our career development.
    - - It is a comprehensively conceived development programe to help an individual make and implement well-informed choices in education and vocation.
        Through career guidance and counselling, an individual develops skills in career planning, self-knowledge, exploring educational and occupational opportunities. We can find career guidance programes in places such as universities, colleges, schools, workplace and training institutions.
    - - It is a long-term decision about choosing the work we want to do in terms of career. Factors affecting career choice are:
      - (i) Parental guidance;
      - (ii) Vocational counselling;
      - (iii) Training opportunities; and
      - (iv) It determines our success in the subsequent stages of our life.
  - - - Prior to the 1900s, there was not much support available for an individual looking at various careers. Knowing what job opportunities are available typically came from networking with family, friends, school and community.
        In US during the 1800s, only the wealthy could afford to send their children to school to enter the various professions. Towards the end of the 1800s, there was a movement towards education for purpose and assessment.
      - Frank Parsons (1854-1908) founded the vocational guidance movement (Gummere, 1988). He created the concept of matching career to an individual’s skills, talents and personality. According to Parsons (1909) “it is better to choose a vocation then hunt after a job”.
        It was in the late 19th and early 20th centuries when the need to address the problem of vocational education which is known today as vocational guidance, in the US became inescapably necessary.
      - The first thing Parsons did in his struggle was to establish a Vocations Bureau in Boston with a view to providing a scientific platform to help immigrants as well as others develop efficient approaches or measures for choice of a particular vocation (Herr, 2013).
        The establishment of Vocations Bureau at Civic House in Boston, in 1908 (Ginzberg, 1971; Herr, 2013), marked the beginning of career counselling in the US.
      - As argued by (Lloyd, 1987), counselling and guidance body arrived in Malaysia through the US as was the case in several parts of the globe. By 1963 it was obvious that learners in Malaysian schools could no longer be trained without the input of guidance and counselling, and by implication, career guidance.
        This again stemmed from the fact that the nature and enormity of changes occurring in the labour market and world of work with their emerging threats became issues of discourse and debates all over (Bridges, 1995; Herriot & Pemberton, 1996; Holbeche, James, & Wark, 1995).
      - The Ministry of Education, recognising the relevance and the importance of incorporating counselling into the school system, had mandated in particular secondary and high schools to have guidance teachers (Amir & Latiff, 1984; Ng & Peter, 2010; Pope et al., 2002).
        This arose from the fact that Malaysian society places an importance on education as a hallmark of social mobility and economic advancement. It is all necessary to build career exploration behavior of young people at secondary school level, bearing in mind that school-to-work transition has always been challenging in the academic and developmental life of individuals or adolescents.
      - By 2000, it suffices to say that a significant percentage of secondary schools in Malaysia had at least one practising and a fulltime counsellor to address counselling issues according to the school’s needs.
        The demand for human resource development in counselling later led to the introduction of counselling at graduate-level in some public universities and one private higher institution as further posited by See and Ng (2010).
  - - - Brown and Brooks (1991) have defined career counselling as an interpersonal process whereby individuals having career development problems are assisted.
        Some examples of career problems are career hesitancy, work performance, work stress, work adjustment, incongruence between individual and work environment, and insufficient integration of professional roles with various life roles.
    - - Super (1976) defines career as:
      - A course of events constituting life;
      - Expression of an individualÊs commitment to work in his/her plan of selfdevelopment involving a combination of a series of occupations and various life roles; and
      - Succession of salaried and non-salaried jobs by an individual from adolescence till retirement in an occupation.
      - Important aspects of career counselling are as follows (Crites, 1981)
        
        Career counselling compared with other forms of counselling e.g. psychotherapy is a greater need because it involves our inner world while other counselling approaches involve only external events;
        
        Career counselling may be therapeutic. Research has indicated a positive correlation between personal adjustment and career. Individuals with successful career decisions may have acquired skills and confidence to handle various other problem areas;
        
        Career counselling is more complicated than psychotherapy. An effective career counsellor needs to be knowledgeable in both personal and work variables plus understanding their interactions;
        
        An effective career counsellor needs to be acquainted with personality theories and career development theories plus techniques to acquire and combine the information. Thus, a rather substantial amount of training is required;
        A career counsellor provides the necessary moral support and motivation to students thereby improving their general performance. Students are also taught how to develop networking, thus enhancing emotional support.
  - - - In this respect, a counsellor has the option of administering and interpreting a career assessment.
      - Also can integrate and explore other aspects of career choice, for example, social and familial influences, cultural influences, socio economic status, gender, ethnicity, spirituality, sexual orientation and disabilities.
      - A career counsellor can help an individual to learn about oneself by assessing the various aspects related to career choice such as personality, values, skills, abilities and interests.
    - - Printed materials and Internet provide excellent resources to get acquainted with the various resources related to education and career. From the information obtained we may then summarise academic options and college/university requirements and generate career options and plans.
        Some of the information to look for includes nature of work, job market, work conditions, job trends, employment outlook, remuneration and academic training.
    - - In developing and implementing a career path action plan, we need to acquire the various styles and strategies of career decision-making to enable us to set specific, realistic and achievable objectives.
        A career counsellor can help us to acquire coping skills in various areas related to career choices such as anxiety management, handling rejections/disappointments, handling grieving issues, overcoming lack of confidence and stress/depression control.
    - - Examining and studying ways and means of maintaining a professional image;
      - Acquiring skills in curriculum vitae (CV) and job search letter writing;
      - Acquiring the skill to assemble a portfolio on career;
      - Performing simulated interviews to analyse strengths and weaknesses for improvement;
      - Identifying and communicating with organisations with potential employment;
      - Job shadowing and creating/utilising networks;
      - Identifying job advertisements and timely responding to them;
      - Attending and participating in job fairs;
      - Selecting job offers;
      - Acquiring salary negotiation skills and job benefits knowledge;
      - Acquiring the communication skills and etiquette necessary for a job interview;
      - Acquiring the necessary awareness and understanding of culture sensitive organisations with potential employment;
      - Acquiring the skills to disclose disability and request for accommodation as and when needed;
      - Acquiring knowledge on equal employment opportunities (EEO); and
      - Acquiring confidence and commitment to the process of job searching.
    - - Identifying programmes matching our interest;
      - Acquiring letter of recommendation;
      - Writing essay on personal biography;
      - Identifying and preparing for the necessary admission exam;
      - Performing simulated interviews;
      - Searching information on financial aid such as study grant, bursary and scholarship;
      - Developing backup plan in the event of rejection;
      - Having confidence in the application process.
    - - Developing approaches in handling work functions/self-employment;
      - Creating strategy to enhance marketability and competitiveness;
      - Developing strategies to cope with work life uncertainties such as layoffs, challenging work environment and personality clashes.
- - - - 21st century career development protagonists have highlighted the influence of vocation and culture in the choice of occupation, fulfilment and achievement in the mental health and vocational psychology arena
        (Brown, 2002).
        • The trait and factor theory initially started off as a talent-matching concept by Frank Parsons. The theory stresses the value of matching the traits, attributes and talents of an individual to the requirements of the career being pursued (Parsons, 1909).
      - Basic Assumptions
        1) Individuals have unique stable and measurable pattern of traits
        2) There exists a unique pattern of traits necessary for the the performance of each occupational critical task to be effective
        3) Traits of an individual can be matched to occupational traits req.
        4) Greater probability of success in job performance and personal satisfaction once the two traits are matched (Klien & Weiner, 1977)
      - The trait factor methodology relates to the total development of an individual through his/her life stage and environment with the immediate goal of helping the individual to use problem solving skills to arrive at an effective decision rather than to engage in irrational, non productive thinking and behavior (Lynch
        Maki, 1981)
        •
        The counsellor client relationship may be explained as influencing, mentoring and teaching with external assessment to measure personal development
        against society
        •
        We can look at personal traits in the framework of degree of fitness to the environment in which the individual functions, for example, geographical,
        cultural, socioeconomic class, economic climate, academic setting and community setting
      - THEORY APPLICATION
        
        Conventional > Organisers: Work with data, clerical/numerical ability, structured, detailed, e.g., following instructions, careful and confirming
        
        Realistic > Doers: Mechanical ability, preference for work with objects, machines, tools, plants or animals; independently or outdoors; frank, hands-on, practical
        
        Investigative > Thinkers: Like to learn, observe, analyse/research or solve problems; enjoy science/math; reserved, independent, scholarly
        
        Artistic > Creators: Innovative/creative abilities; prefers unstructured work and situations; use imagination & creativity
        
        Social > Helpers: Like helping others; inform, enlighten, teach, train, develop, or cure; skilled with words; concerned about welfare of others; compassionate
        
        Enterprising > Persuaders: Like working with ppl; direct, influence, persuade, lead/manage for org/economic goals; adventurous, outgoing, energetic
      - According to the theory, personality, interests and skills determine an individual potential career
        •
        The Holland Codes classify six kinds of vocation practical, artistic, analytical,
        enterprising, societal and traditional We classify our clients accordingly using
        the Holland Codes Our clients may like working outdoors or indoors in a normal
        air conditioned office We assess the skills required for our client’s career path and request the client to make a list of 10 skills that he or she likes to
        accomplish We then request the client to make another list for skill proficiency
        We compare the two lists for areas of commonality, noting that skills proficiency that have high satisfaction index would be the foundation for our client’s career path Together with our client, we assess the job market available for a good fit
      - 2.4 IMPLICATIONS ON CAREER GUIDANCE
        Contributions of the Trait and Factor Approach
        
        The Trait and Factor Approach is an efficient approach for tackling routine adjustment issues relating to vocation and education
        Another forte of the Trait and Factor is its team play approach with problems referred to other professionals thereby providing more comprehensive solutions
        (Williamson Hahn, 1940 Novice counsellors would love this approach
        But Trait and Factor Approach is essentially used on generally healthy individuals
        undergoing typical daily developmental issues, stressing on making rational decisions and disseminating informative material systematically
        
        STRENGTHS
        1) Objectivity The dependence of Trait Theory on statistics based on data that are not subjective is its tower of strength The theorist’s personal experience and subjectivity have no influence whatsoever as experienced by other theories The Trait Theory does not suffer any bias at all
        2) Ease of Use and Understanding: The
        Trait Theory is the basis for the development of numerous tools of assessment that is ease of use and ease of understanding It delivers a straightforward continuum providing lots of information about an individual’s personality, values and interaction between oneself and the public
        
        WEAKNESSES
        1) Poor Predictor of Future Behaviour: In Trait Theory, we can place an individual’s position in the continuum of a specific trait, but not the individual’s state State refers to how an individual interacts with others in a temporary way An introvert is usually quiet, reticent, intelligent and composed. However, in the company of close buddies, an introvert may exhibit outgoing, exciting and fun loving behaviour
        2) Does not Address Development: The strength of Trait Theory ( is also its largest criticism Being statistic based, it has no provision for personality development Most theories discuss the development ( the current personality ( and offer a way for change However, the Trait Theory is glued to the present
        3) No Means of Change: The Trait Theory does not provide ideas on trait development, thus is unable to provide assistance regarding the modification of undesirable characteristics of a trait We cannot modify a trait if we do not have understanding of the development of that particular trait The fact that the
        Trait Theory does not have the instruments for transformation is argument for the significant reduction in the application of the theory It is not good
        enough to be able to just measure or know a thing
    - - Life Roles
        Child, student, leasurite, citizen, worker, home-maker, partner, parent, pensioner.
        people’s choice of a career is akin to expressing
        self-identity rather than just a process of pairing skills and preferences in the realm
        of vocation.
      - Developmental Stages
        Stage 1; GROWTH (0-14): Dev of self-concept, attitudes, needs, and general world of work.
        Stage 2; EXPLORATION (15-24): Tentative choice & skills development
        Stage 3; ESTABLISHMENT (25-44): Entry-level skill building and stabilisation through work experience
        Stage 4; MAINTENANCE (45-64): Continual adjustment process to improve position
        Stage 5; DISENGAGEMENT (65+): Reduced output, preparing for retirement
        
        LIFE RAINBOW: Influenced by Environmental, Situational, and personal determinants
      - Super (1990) 14 propositions relating
        to functions of skills and preferences,
        self constructs, phases of life and individual circumstance interactions.
        1.
        Humans possess different personalities, skills, traits, self concepts,
        requirements, beliefs and preferences
        2.
        The qualifications of people are dependent on such attributes, each and every
        one for several vocations
        3.
        For every vocation, there is a distinctive array of personality traits and abilities,
        allowing variations of persons in each vocation and variation of vocations for
        each person
      - 4.
        Over time, competencies and vocational preferences, the state of living and working and, consequently, self concepts evolve with experience and time
        However, self concepts, as outcomes of cognitive learning in the social context, become progressively steady beginning late adolescence till late adulthood,
        offering a measure of stability in selection and modification
        5.
        We can consider the procedure of adjustment as the summation of a series of life phases illustrated by a series of development, evaluation, formation, preservation, and degeneration The various phases are then segmented into exploratory and establishment stages The exploratory stage has imaginary, provisional and practical phases, while the establishment stage has test and steady phases
      - 6.
        The career pattern is characterised by the attainment of occupational level, its classification, occurrence and period of provisional and steady jobs Is influenced by paternal, maternal, education, ability, personality (self concepts,
        interests, needs and values), skills, socioeconomic level, career maturity and career opportunities exposure
        7.
        The ability to meet the requirements of the situation and system in a life career phase rests on the individual’s career maturity (i e the individual’s willingness to deal with the requirements), involving a collection of physical, psychological and social traits including the measure of success to cope with the needs of the
        initial phases including other sub phases of career development
      - 8.
        Career maturity is “the place reached on the continuum of vocational
        development from exploration to decline”decline”( 1957 p 186 It is a
        hypothetical construct and like intelligence is rather hard to express
        9.
        Guidance for growth throughout the various life phases is implemented
        through the development of personal pursuits and skills, facilitating the
        maturity of self constructs and reality testing
        10.
        Career development is basically the process involving the development and
        implementation of self concepts in the world of occupation It compromises to
        develop self concepts from the interaction of physical dispositions, aptitudes,
        prospective role play and interactive learning (the degree of role playing
        sanctioned by seniors and colleagues)
        11.
        The synthesising and compromising between social factors and individual and
        between reality and self concepts is about role playing and studying from
        feedback, regardless if the role playing is carried out in counselling interview,
        fantasy and real world activities (such as entry jobs, part time work, clubs and
        classes)
        12.
        Satisfaction in life and work is dependent on individuals finding satisfactory
        channels for self constructs, personality traits, preferences, beliefs, needs and
        skills They are dependent on the type of work, work environment and a
        lifestyle that leads to a pleasant and appropriate roleplaying attained from
        development and exploratory experiences
        13.
        The level of satisfaction an individual achieves from work is proportionate to
        the level of ability to realise self concepts
        14.
        For most people, occupation and work offer a focal point for personality
        composition, albeit for some this focal point is unimportant, incidental or
        does not exist at all, making instead other focal points such as leisure and
        homemaking central The determining factors for various roles such as
        homemaker, leisurite student, worker and citizen are individual disparities,
        opportunity framework, ethnic biases and sex role typecasting
      - APPLICATION Super’s
        Theory helps us to tackle general career development, providing the
        counsellor plays the role of a historian developing an autobiographical account of a client Life stories are studied for ideas of continuity and recurring themes that have clear meaning of the past, explaining the present and providing a plan for the
        future
      - The phenomenological-social-developmental-differential career theory was developed by Super (1969) based on 14 assumptions.
        • The theory of career development is a “loosely unified set of theories dealing
        with specific aspects of career development, taken from developmental,
        differential, social, personality, and phenomenological psychology and held
        together by self-concept and learning theory” (Super, Savickas, Super, Brown, &
        Brooks, 1990).
        • Super (1963, ) said “an individual’s self-concept is his concept of himself, not
        inferences made by outside others”. Super observed that self-construction
        development occurs over numerous phases.
      - Contributions of the Developmental Theory
        (a) The Development of Self concept
        It is commonly used to refer to how one thinks about, evaluates or perceives himself It can be a collection of beliefs encompassing roles played, academic achievements, sexuality and ethnic identity
        (b) The Evolvement of Self concept With New Experiences in Life
        It is not unusual for people’s self concept to evolve over time This is reflected in their experiences in life and the environment that they are in Self concept changes from one situation to another, from one relationship to another, or from one year or stage in the life course to the next
        (c) A Lifelong Activity in Career Development
        This refers to any activities conducted geared towards the development of an individual’s career and not remain stagnant in one position year after year The activity enables a worker to be more effective in their current position, would prepare them for advancement within the Department or enhance personal development and lifelong learning The relevance, desirability and timing of participation in developmental activities are determined through work planning and goal setting discussions between an employee and his/her supervisor
        (d) Introducing the Life Spaces in Development of a Person
        The introduction of life spaces in the development of a person is pertinent in the integration of the rainbow in one’s life As one develops in life, the individual plays various roles and some of these roles begin early in life, e g that of child and others begin late in life, e g that of pensioner At some life stages a person plays only one
        role (e g that of child when still a neonate), and at others a number of roles, such as those of spouse, parent, homemaker and worker when in the prime of life
    - - • Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory postulates that learning is a mental
        (cognitive) process occurring via direct teaching or observation, even when
        there is a lack ofmotor reproduction or direct encouragement (Bandura, 1986).
        • Expanded from Bandura’s theory, Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory illustrates
        just how career decisions of individuals are made, stressing on the significance
        of behaviour (act) and cognitive mental processes (thinking or knowing) in
        forming career choices, coaching decision-making skills and in what manner
        using them(Krumboltz, 1994; Krumboltz, Fuqua, Newman, &Walsh, 1994).
      - Factors influencing CD:
        
        Genetic endowment
        
        Environmental conditions and events
        
        Learning experiences
        
        Task approach skills
      - • Albert Bandura’s Social Learning Theory postulates that learning is a mental
        (cognitive) process occurring via direct teaching or observation, even when
        there is a lack ofmotor reproduction or direct encouragement (Bandura, 1986).
        • Expanded from Bandura’s theory, Krumboltz’s Social Learning Theory illustrates
        just how career decisions of individuals are made, stressing on the significance
        of behaviour (act) and cognitive mental processes (thinking or knowing) in
        forming career choices, coaching decision-making skills and in what manner
        using them(Krumboltz, 1994; Krumboltz, Fuqua, Newman, &Walsh, 1994).
      - MODELLING PROCESS
        
        Attention: Individuals
        need to pay attention to the various characteristics of the behaviour model so that
        learning can take place
        Various factors contribute to the extent an individual gives attention to the activities
        modelled, for example, the personality of the observer and the observed and conflicting
        stimuli
        
        Retention: For individuals to be affected by behaviours observed, they have to remember the modelled activities on various different
        occasions
        They save the behaviours observed as mental images or verbal descriptions enabling them to recall the mental image and verbal descriptions later on to imitate the modelled activity on their own
        Language and imaging help to process information retention
        
        Reproduction: Reproduction
        is the process of transforming
        symbolic representations into relevant actions
        An individual behavioural reproduction is realised
        through the organisation of his or her individual
        responses according to the model
        Behavioural reproduction gets better with practice
        
        Motivation: Behavioural imitation requires motivation like
        imagined incentives
        These incentives function as reinforcements
        Negative reinforcements encourage the cessation of the model activity
      - Individuals also have the ability to regulate their own behaviour known as self regulation The process of self regulation involves the following
        i.
        Observing Self Individual looking at oneself, oneÊs behaviour and monitoring the actions
        ii.
        Decision/Judgement Individual
        making comparisons between these observations and the standards established by the community or the individual
        iii.
        Self response Following
        the decision/judgement, the individual will give a self response reward for good performance However, if the performance is poor, a self
        response punishment is meted out
    - - Learning Experiences
        Career choices are the consequences of previous
        learning know how that is rather unique to
        individuals.
      - Task Approach Skills
        We can understand the way people handle tasks by the manner they set their objectives, clarify values, generate options, and acquire job information as well as their thinking and beliefs
        Natural talent, learning know how and the conditions of the environment interact to foster expertise in various jobs.
      - Behavioural & Cognitive Skills
        Ability Generalisations: Established upon an individual's previous exposure and knowledge about oneself
        Interest Generalisations: Establishing our likes and dislikes generally
        Value Generalisations: Based on our opinions, we cultivate our individual values as well as develop our professional values.
        World View Generalisations: The exposure and knowledge about occupation gives us the chance to generalise about the world around us.
      - APPLICATION OF SLT
        The Social Learning Theory is applicable to women, empowering them with the ability to regulate environment influences. It is also applicable to populations that are culturally diverse and where few studies have been carried out.
        It is noteworthy that culture variations relate to the different occupations valued or idealised. These variations are also related to various values like spirituality and income. It is also known that environments that are discriminating can be
        altered via collective action and the career counsellor plays an essential part in assisting clients tackle them.
      - Contributions of the Social Learning Theory
        Helps to facilitate the learning of skills, interests, beliefs, values, work habits, and personal qualities that enable clients to create a satisfying life within a constantly changing work environment, learning about self and the environment.
        Criteria influence goals of career counselling
        
        People Need to Expand Their Capabilities and Interests, Not Base Decisions on Existing Characteristics Only
        
        People Need to Prepare for Changing Work Tasks, Not Assume That Occupations Will Remain Stable
        
        People Need to Be Empowered to Take Action, Not
        Merely Be Given a Diagnosis
- - - - (a) Career Problem
        Current indecisiveness state and desired decisiveness state creates a discord in cognition that becomes a major motivation to problem-solving and decision-making to get rid of the discomfort/ tension caused by the gap.
        (b) Problem Space
        The working memory space relating to cognition and affection of individuals engaged in the process of career problem-solving. It includes the current career problem and all associated issues such as family, marital, peer and co-workers relationships.
      - (c) Career Problem-solving
        A collection of multifaceted logic and thinking concerning the recognition of the chasm, clarifying and formulating different alternative actions and selecting one that mitigates the chasm, resulting in the solution of the career problem, that is, a career choice has been made.
        (d) Career Decision-making
        An action encompassing the making of a career choice and the necessary commitment to that choice and its implementation.
      - (e) Career Development
        Current indecisiveness state and desired decisiveness Executing an integrated career path that involves a series of career decisions across the whole life span.
        The “Expert” and “Client” versions of the CIP Model, despite the complexity, are practically easy to learn and apply with the emphasis on “gaining access into the client’s head” to understand information processing (Hirschi & Läge, 2008). All these go towards attaining the skills of problem-solving and decision-making.
      - 7 Steps in CIP Model
        
        1) Initial Interview
        2) Preliminary Readiness Assessment
        3) Define Problem & Analyse Cause
        4) Formulate Goals
        5) Develop ILP (Individualised Learning Plan)
        6) Execute ILP
        7) Summary - Review & Generalisation
      - IMPLICATIONS
        The advancement of scientific career counselling is fronted by the CIP Model
        delivering a theoretical basis for the introduction of a value-adding domain:
        
        The acquisition of skills in career problem-solving and decision—making utilising the problem currently faced;
        
        Concentrating on the needs of clients to improve their skills in problem solving;
        
        Development of facilitative learning environment, looking beyond traditional counselling relationship;
        
        Enabling career counsellors to match resources for career service to the severity of the presenting problem, thus promoting better productivity in administering career services; and
        
        Enabling individuals to mull over a career problem analytically, thereby improving the opportunities for enhancing career and lifestyle.
    - - The Pyramid of Information Processing
        
        Knowledge Domains:
        1) Self-knowledge: understanding about self. Includes an individual’s abilities, skills, values and interests as well as development of lived experiences.
        2) Occupational Knowledge: Individual’s understanding of occupational duties, responsibilities, educational requirements and training requirements making up a unique framework that represents the individual’s work domain.
        
        Decision-making Skills Domain:
        The CASVE Cycle The middle level of the pyramid relates to skills in information processing combining with self and occupational knowledge to carry out career problem-solving and decision-making. CASVE (pronounced “ca-sah-veh”). Cycle is a five step heuristic counselling process, involving the transformation of information recursively. This is illustrated in Figure 3.2.
      - CASVE Cycle
        
        Communication: Upon the receipt of information signalling the existence of a problem, the chasm (or gap) involving all the parts of the problem space is communicated.
        Analysis: Root cause analysis of the problem is conducted and a conceptual framework or model is created based on the analysis.
        Synthesis: A list of options is drawn up using synthesis elaboration (elaborating possibilities) and then shortlisted through synthesis crystallisation into a set of feasible options.
        Valuing: All the options are assessed and prioritised accordingly, based on the possible effects on society, cultural community, self and significant others, and the probability of removing the chasm (or gap). Subsequently, a career choice develops, solving the career problem.
        Execution: An action plan is devised to realise the career choice that now becomes the client’s goal. A series of means-ends milestones is planned to achieve the goal. A career decision takes place when clients willingly work towards the goal, for example, by taking a job or a training programme.
        
        Once the action plan has been completed, we go back to the Communication stage to assess the effectiveness of the efforts to eliminate the chasm. If effective, the clients go on to solve subsequent problems that may arise from executing the action plan. Otherwise, the client goes through the CASVE cycle again with new information.
    - - (a) Capability
        Different clients have different values and abilities to extend their training and schooling, risk taking, self-efficacy, self-esteem, family support, beliefs and notions about the work domain. They bring with them their experiences and problem-solving capabilities into their decision-making process.
      - (b) Complexity
        The high complexity of clients’ lives is often the source of their career problems involving commitment to relationships, family and children responsibilities, spiritual issues, community issues, property ownership and pursuits of leisure. These impact the way clients connect to the various phases of the CASVE Cycle.
  - - - MBTI
        
        The Myers-Briggs Type Indicator (MBTI) is a self-reporting survey that provides an indication of the manner individuals understand the world and make decisions. Was created by Katharine Cook Briggs and daughter Isabel Briggs Myers, and grounded on psychologist Carl Jung’s theories.
        The MBTI is distinctly different from other instruments used in psychology and career counselling in that it:
        
        Does not involve the assessment of psychological health
        
        Does not give instruction to clients
        
        Does include feedback and “agreeing” to the personality type
        
        Does not include scaling nor value
        
        Possesses strong points and flaws inherently associated with the profile type.
      - Gottfredson's Theory
        
        Gottfredson postulated that the career ambitions of individuals are on occasion compromised by restrictive factors such as field of interest, sex type and prestige. According to her, "career choice is an attempt to place oneself in the broader social order“. She is seeking the answer to the question “Where do interests, abilities and other determinants of vocational choice come from?”. Basically, asking ourselves the reason for choosing what we are doing.
        The answer lies in developing and understanding the self-concept followed by the elimination of alternative occupations conflicting with this self-concept via circumscription. Lastly, basing upon specific criteria the surviving alternatives are looked into.
        
        (a) Defining Self-concept
        Environment greatly influences specific skills, attitudes and interests but we are in control of our design within the constraints of our genetic make-up that drives rather than commands us to a certain direction.
        As an example, neither genetics nor culture could direct individuals to become rock singers, but their past choices impede a smooth transition into rocket science. However, this does not imply we are unable to counter cultural and genetic impacts. We are what we are because of experiences and via our engagements with the world come to understand ourselves, thereby finding ways and means for a better resonation, reinforcement and reflection of our personal inclinations.
        
        (b) The concept of circumscription
        Our life experiences, settings and genetic make-up construct a limiting circumscription process for eliminating work alternatives conflicting with our self-concept.
        4 Stages
        S1) Orientation to size and power (3-5yo)
        S2) Orientation to sex roles (6-8yo)
        S3) Orientation to social valuation (9-13yo):
        People conceptualise jobs as theoretical compilations of activities with an associated social value and they then position themselves within this value system. People understand remuneration, prestige and endeavour, adjusting their ambitions appropriately.
        S4) Orientation to internal and unique Self (14 onwards): People who have removed undesirable alternatives are currently searching for roles matching their personal and psychological selves, replacing idealistic ambitions with realistic ones that are perceived to be in alignment with themselves and within reach.
        
        (c) The Act of Compromise
        The four stages of circumscription are used to remove unacceptable occupations. However, compromise is used by people to abandon their most preferred occupations for less matching ones that are more within reach. People select postings available within their social space from the roles shortlisted based on apparent effort, prestige and gender. They then define what is and what is not “suitable”. If their preferred role is unavailable, they compromise prestige rather than make adjustment across gender roles. As an example, an individual wanting to be an engineer may select construction instead of hair dressing.
        
        IMPLICATIONS
        Gottfredson’s Theory of Circumscription and Compromise
        To enable us to forecast our career options, we look at structures such as family, gender, race, education, social mobility and social class. Possessing the knowledge on the why, what and invisible influences on our beliefs and behaviours is power. The theory assists us in framing how our inclinations and dispositions towards gender roles lead us towards the choice of jobs.
      - Social Cognitive Career Theory
        
        by Lent, Brown and Hackett (1994), basing on the general social cognitive theory of Albert Bandura
        A new theory involving the following
        three interconnected areas of career development:
        
        Development of basic career and academic interests
        
        The making of career and education choices
        
        Achievement of career and academic success
        
        The SCCT is fundamentally built upon three interlinked variables:
        self-efficacy beliefs, outcome expectations and personal goals.
      - Anne Roe's Theory
        
        Involves two important areas:
        personality theory and occupational classifications
        The incorporation of psychological needs resulting from parent-child interaction into the concept of personality by Roe was based on Maslow’s hierarchy of needs. The parent-child interaction model has three categories of classification:
        
        Child emotional concentration, further classifying into overprotective or over demanding
        
        Child avoidance, further classifying into emotional rejection or neglect
        
        Child acceptance, further classifying into casual or loving
      - The Systems Framework (SFT) Theory
        
        This systems theory establishes a link between theories and practice, implicating the need for career counsellors to shift from a traditional cosy world view to a new rising world view filled with differing narratives of causality.
        Career counsellors have to mix traditional methodologies with circular instead of linear thinking skills. The circular concept involving the forming and reforming of systems through feedback. The counsellor-client counselling relationship is a system in itself, conceptually.
        
        As an example, career counsellors believing that change may be affected by intervening in any part of the system might work with an organisation or a family, becoming advocates for clients with special needs such as those from minority or low socioeconomic groups. The feedback looping of the systems theory may have better outcomes for the clients by assisting them in making meanings of their situations. As an illustration, clients viewing their occupational situations might find it advantageous to do so in the light of the nation’s current socioeconomic situation (Patton & McMahon, 1999).
      - Theory of Work Adjustment (TWA)
        
        by René Dawis, George England and Lloyd Lofquist from University of Minnesota, 1964.
        The Work Adjustment Theory, also known as the Person-Environment Correspondence Theory. The theory states that an individual’s capabilities (such as skills, experience, knowledge, behaviour and attitudes) having a close correspondence with the requirements of a role or organisation will have a high probability of achieving success.
        Likewise, the reinforcers (such as rewards) of a role or an organisation having close correspondence to an individual’s values will have a high probability of achieving job satisfaction.
        
        6 Core Values People Seek to Satisfy (Environments)
        1) Achievement: Success and advancement
        2) Comfort: Lack of stress
        3) Status: Respect and prestige
        4) Altruism: Peace and service to others
        5) Safety: Stability and consistency
        6) Autonomy: Self-control and enterprise
        
        The extent of fulfilment and satisfactoriness are indicative of an individual’s prospects of staying in a job, making a success out of it and getting rewarded with promotion. Adjustment will occur when flexibility is unable to cope with the deficiency of correspondence.
        (a) Active adjustment
        Individual: Individuals seeking to change the work environment by changing job content to have a better reflection of their capabilities. They might also seek alteration in their job reinforcements, thereby gaining better working conditions or better variety or responsibility.
        Environment: This relates to seeking a change in capabilities via training or a change in values or expectations of employees.
        (b) Reactive Adjustment
        Individual: This refers to individuals seeking a change in their behaviours, work values or personal priorities to better harmonise with the environment.
        Environment: This involves changing roles and responsibilities to match the individual’s capabilities or changing the rewards to improve job satisfaction.
      - Person-Environment Fit Theory
        
        Person-environment fit (P-E fit) has been defined as the extent to which an
        individual is compatible with their environment.
        This model is commonly used in vocational psychology based on Frank Parson’s contention that job outcomes can be improved through proper matching of the traits of individuals to occupational characteristics.
        
        All P-E Fit models found in vocational psychology make the following assumptions:
        
        Seasoned incumbents inside an occupation possess certain common psychological attributes;
        
        Significant and measurable distinctions between people and between occupations exist;
        
        Individual variances and occupational variances interact influencing (positively or negatively) the outcomes; and
        
        Personal attributes and occupational features are consistent over time and setting, justifying forecasting long-term outcomes.
        
        Thus, if we can obtain reliable measurements of the employees and work environments, the degree of matching or fitting employees with environments can be used to predict outcomes on job satisfaction and productivity.
- - - - The level of satisfaction and satisfactoriness can predict the probability an individual will remain in a job, be successful and enjoy progression.
        
        However, an individual may not correspond well with the work environment owing them making a wrong career choice or the employer making a wrong candidate selection.
        
        If we have good correspondence, it may also over time change with the individual’s skills outgrowing their roles or changing priorities resulting from non-work related obligations.
        
        The job requirements and the type of rewards given by employer may also change.
        
        The resilience of the individual and the environment will decide the degree of tolerance towards the loss of correspondence between the requirements of the individual and environment.
      - (a) Active Adjustment
        Individual: Change the working environment (such as nature of the job) to better reflect his or her capabilities. Change the job reinforcements (such as better working conditions and greater variety).
        Environment: Change the individual’s capabilities via training. Change the individual’s values and expectations.
        (b) Reactive Adjustment
        Individual: Change behaviour to blend in with the environment. Change work values. Change personal priorities
        Environment: Change the responsibilities of the role to match the individual’s capabilities. Change the rewards to improve job satisfaction.
  - - - AFFECTIVE COMMITMENT: Employees who have affective commitment towards their organisation usually identify with their goals and will stay put.
        They feel comfortable, valued, fitting into the organisation and enjoy job satisfaction. They are an asset to their organisation and often act as representatives for their
        organisation.
        NORMATIVE COMMITMENT: Employees who have normative commitment typically think they should remain at their organisation.
        They felt guilty thinking about leaving and there would be terrible outcomes should they leave, creating a capability and knowledge vacuum that would stress their co-workers. These notions have a negative impact on their performance.
        CONTINUANCE COMMITMENT: Employees who have continuance commitment feel the need to remain in their organisation because they have no other work options and income.
        Example, employees having to stay because moving to another organisation would bring no improvement in terms of remuneration and
        benefits. These employees would become an organisational issue should they lose job satisfaction and interest in their work, yet are reluctant to leave.
- - - - In career life planning, it is important for an individual to understand oneself in terms of personal interests, capabilities and career preferences, and subsequently develop the necessary expertise to carry out life planning. The careers of people are influenced by their personality, values, interests and skills. Regardless of an individual’s curiosity or involvement in a career, self-assessment tests and instruments will assist in making a wiser career choice.
    - - An individual explores the various types of learning and experiences relating to career such as:
        
        Classroom learning of subjects and projects related to career
        
        Outside classroom learning from real-life working experts and workplace visitations;
        
        Practical learning experience such as operating an e-business and participating in a temporary practical vocation
        
        Practical work experience such as internship and work attachment.
    - - Career planning and career management involve mapping out objectives and strategies, monitoring and evaluating outcomes and allocating resources. A successful career management plan will result in personal fulfilment, achievement of work-life balance, achievement of career goals and financial security.
    - - Career life planning provides a clear understanding of what is expected from the client and organisation. This helps provide them useful professional services based on the following principles:
        
        A variety of services aligned to the needs of students’ development;
        
        Provision of services to students regardless of orientations, capabilities and level of study;
        
        Empowering students to make informed decisions and responsible choices in their studies, career objectives and various aspects of life;
        
        Encouraging students to make wise decisions in studies and careers based their personality, capabilities and interests;
        
        Promoting students’ career development, thereby helping them in theiractualisation;
        
        Assisting students in the management of their transitions from school to the work domain, thereby preparing them for continuing life learning.
- - - - Local community colleges, vocational schools and labour unions typically offer career education programmes.
      - State career centres also offering services to individuals who are looking at various options apart from college education.
      - Most programmes require Malaysia Certificate of Education (SPM) or equivalent certificate. However, certain programmes may still admit students lacking such qualification albeit requiring them to undergo a remedial course.
  - - - To enhance students’ career development, it is recommended that technical and vocational school teachers or career counsellors do the following:
        
        Ensure all the students involved in career development intervention such as career exploration and self-exploration as soon as possible as early as during elementary school.
        
        Ensure administrators, educators and counsellors are mindful of how valuable career development interventions and career counselling are to support and implement various programmes related to career development and counselling.
        
        Standardise a comprehensive set of career guidance and career modules for career counsellors.
        
        Assess the school career development programme regularly. Assessment of the programme is necessary for the following reasons to:
        
        Ensure that the target objectives are achieved;
        
        Continually improve the programme and the counselling services;
        
        Keep stakeholders, e.g. school administrators informed on the effectiveness and benefits of the programme.
        
        Get parents to participate in career development intervention programmes such as through the Parent-Teacher Association and to incorporate Asian values in assisting students to make career decisions.
- - - - Factors assessing readiness
        Sargent and Schlossberg (1988) expressed that there are four factors determiningan individual’s readiness for change that can be used by counsellors to assist adultsundergoing transition to evaluate their readiness as illustrated in Table 7.1.
        
        Self:Individual's reaction to change
        
        Situation: Changing roles, bonds, habits, beliefs
        
        Support: Existence of resources
        
        Strategies: Action to be taken to reform the situation.by changing its meaning or changing oneself
- - - - A tests designed to gauge the tendency of an individual to be successful in an assignment. Aptitude Tests assume people have innate strengths and weaknesses that influence the outcomes of their endeavours in a domain (Donlon, 1984). An example of an aptitude test is the typing test where one’s typing speed and accuracy is verified.
        Success and fulfilment in career are more related to the following:
        (a) Our interest and passion for the job;
        (b) The match between our cognitive abilities and personal values on the job;
        (c) How much is the job in demand in the career field?
    - - Values based life-career counselling makes the following assumptions:
        
        Career choice is fundamentally based on work values that are ranked highly. When the choice of a vocation is limited, restructuring other life roles to meet life values that are ranked highly is encouraged
        
        People possessing value orientations such as time orientation and activity orientation tend to be most successful decision makers.
        
        Individuals having the social value of individualism need to make a succession of estimates about their personality and the occupations they are contemplating to achieve success
        
        People possessing collateral preference or individualist preference will have varying sources of job satisfaction.
        
        Success in a job is governed by factors that are universal to both employers and employees alike independent of the social relations value.