DISCOURSE

Discourse analysis is concerned with the study of the relationship between language and the contexts in which it is used

FORMAL LINKS

PARALLELISM

REFERRING EXPRESSIONS

ELLIPSIS & SUBSTITUTION

CONJUNCTION

LEXICAL COHESION

Grammartical Parallelism

Semantic Parallelism

Anaphoric (Hồi chỉ)

Cataphoric (Khứ chỉ)

Exophoric (ngoại chỉ)

Ellipsis (phép lược)

Norminal (Noun)
Verbal (verb)
Clausal

Substitution

(phép thế)

Level
Norminal
Verbal
Clausal
Từ thay thế
  • one(s)
  • do
  • so
  • not
  • same

Additive (and, in addition, ..)

Adversative (but, however, ...)

Causal (because, consequently, ..)

Temporal (then, subsequently,..)

1. Reiteration

2. Collocation (đồng hiện)

1a. Repetition

a large mushroom ..... the mushroom is....
(chỉ gạch mushroom thì mới là lexical cohesion, nếu gạch cả the mushroom thì là referring expression rồi)

1b. Synoyms

ascent - climb

1c. Superordinate

desk - table - bookcase <-- furniture

Hyponymy (bao chứa)

Flower --> rose, sunflower, daisy.....
Khác với 1c. superordinate chỗ nào??

  • xét về reference thì flower > rose
  • nhưng xét về sense thì rose = flower + gai + cánh mỏng +....
    nên, sense của "flower" nằm trong sense của "rose"

Synonymy

Antonymy

Language Functions

Why formal links are not enough?

1. Macro function of language

1a. Elements of communication

  1. The addresser (ng nói)
  2. The addressee (ng tiếp nhận/nghe)
  3. Channel: phương tiện truyền đạt (phát thanh, truyền hình, điện tín....)
  4. Message form: the particular grammatical & lexical choices of the message
  5. Topic: the info. carried in the message
  6. Code: the language / dialect (English, British sign lg. , Yorkshire..)
  7. Settings: the social / physical context

1b. Macro- Functions (7 types)

  1. Emotive function: cảm xúc người nói
    'Oh no!, Fantastic!, Ugh!'
  2. Directive function: seeking to affect the behaviour of the addressee
    'Please help me!, 'Shut up!, I'm warning you'
  3. Phatic function: chức năng kết nối
    "How are you doing?" or "Nice weather we're having, isn't it?"
  4. Poetic function
    "Beanz Meanz Heinz"
  5. Referential function: Carrying information
    "The concert is on Friday night."
  6. Metalinguistics function: used to talk about language itself, such as explaining a word's meaning or discussing grammar rules.
    "The word 'dog' refers to a domesticated mammal with four legs."
  7. Contextual function : creating a particular kind of communication
    "Right, let's start the lecture"

2. Speech act theory

Inferring the function = considering form + context

2.1 Locution, Illocution , Perlocution

Locution

H đ tạo ngôn

  • the literal meaning of the words used in an utterance
    "It's raining outside"

Illocutionary act

Hd ngôn trung: là HD được truyền tải bằng lời nói (funtion)
Vd: mời, cảnh cáo, ... (Under full control ò speakers)

  • the intended meaning or function of an utterance
  • the act which is performed by saying it
  • "Can you pass the salt, please?" (The illocution is a request.)
  • "I promise to come to your party." (The illocution is a promise.)

Perlocution

Hd xuyên ngôn: là kw hay hiệu ứng tạo ra khi ta nói điều gì đó

  • the effect that an utterance has on the listener or the audience
  • the overall aim od the discourse

2.2 Classification of speech acts

2.2.1.a Direct speech act

Nếu linguistic structure có ý nghĩa đúng như Speech act

2.2.1.b. Indirect speech act

2.2.2

Performative

(Câu ngôn hành)

  • Chức năng được thực hiện đồng thời trong lời nói (đồng thời trong lúc nói luôn)
  • Notes: phải có "felicity conditions = necessary authority + right time + right place" thì phát ngôn mới có hiệu lực
  • their related verbs: VD: vow, arrest, request, declare, admit, ....
    Vd: I request you to take out the garbage
    --> có chứa từ "request" & thực hiện chức năng request luôn

Declarations

(Câu tuyên bố)

  • khi câu nói được phát ra sẽ thay đổi hiện trạng của ai/cái gì đó ngay lúc đó
  • Notes: phải có "felicity conditions = necessary authority + right time + right place" thì phát ngôn mới có hiệu lực


  • VD: Cha tuyên bố hai con đã thành vợ chồng!


    -->thay đổi tình trạng hôn nhân của hai người

Classification by Searl

1. Declaration

Câu tuyên bố

  • Speech acts that create a new reality or bring about a change in the world by the very act of being uttered.
  • Example: "I now pronounce you husband and wife."

2. Representatives

Câu miêu tả/phản ánh

  • Speech acts that aim to convey information, make claims, assert something, or state a fact.
  • Example: "It is raining outside."

3. Expressives

Câu biểu cảm

  • Speech acts that express the speaker's feelings or emotions about a situation.
  • Example: "I am so happy for you!"

4. Directives

  • Speech acts that aim to get the listener to do something or perform an action.
  • vd: Gimme a cup of coffee!
  • vd: Could you lend me a pen?

5. Commissives

(Câu cam kết)

  • dùng thì future
  • Speech acts that commit the speaker to a future course of action or behavior.
  • vd: I'll be back!
  • vd: I'm going to the library with you next time.
  • vd: "I promise to come to your party next week."

3. Conversational principles

The social basis of conversational principles:
reflect a dual purpose in human intercourse

  • to act efficiently together with other people
  • to create & maintain social relationships

3.1 Co-operative principles

(nguyên tắc hợp tác)

Definition

  • make your contribution such as is required, at the stage at which it occurs
  • by the accepted purpose / direction of the talk exchange in which you are engaged
  • vận hành trong vô thức
    **Notes: the politeness principle & co-operative principle are often in conflict with each other.

Cooperative principles (maxims):

  • quality (be true)
  • quantity (be brief)
  • relevance
  • manner (be clear)

Flouting the co-operative principles

  • for effects: hyperbole, metaphor, irony, sarcasm
  • desire to change subject
  • signal embarrasment
  • humour
  • to be rude / respect

3.2 Politeness

Maxims (phương châm)
1. Don't impose (đừng áp đặt)
'I'm sorry to bother you.'
2. Give options
'May I ask you to ....?'
3. Make your receiver feel good
'You know much more about car engines than I do'

  • Để duy trì mối quan hệ xã hội
  • Lý giải chức năng của những câu như "Could you...", "May I...."
    **Notes: the politeness principle & co-operative principle are often in conflict with each other

Politeness = face = public self-image

  • Face-threatening acts vs. Face-saving acts
  • Face needs:
    Negative face:
    The need to be independent, free from imposition (thoát khỏi áp đặt)
    I'm sorry to bother you, ......
    Positive face
    the need to be connected, to belong, to be member of the group
    Let's do this together.

TWO VIEWS OF

DISCOURSE STRUCTURE

vì function không thể miêu tả được những trường hợp giao tiếp (job interview, court trial...)
--> phải xét phạm vi rộng hơn

Spoken Discourse

1️⃣ Formal: planned / predictable

  • ex: school lesson, court trial
    2️⃣ Informal : less-planned / unpredictable / Lack of structure
  • conversation
    ➡ dùng công cụ phân tích khác nhau

FORMAL

INFORMAL - Ethno-methodology (quan sát)

Conversation

  • seem chaos
  • trong copra (khối ngữ liệu) luôn luôn có turns / turn-taking ăn khớp vào nhau
    --> dấu hiệu của order of a conversation
  • in a conversation, there are
    +turns / turn-taking (Adjajency pairs)
    +overlap of turns
    +pauses

RANK STRUCTURE approach (tree diagram)

Sentence - clauses - phrases - words

BIRMINGHAM School Approach

  • Interaction: Eg.Lesson (cuộc thoại)
  • Transaction (đoạn thoại)
  • Exchange (cặp thoại)
  • Move (Bước/lượt thoại)
  • Act (speech act)

Adjacency pairs

Preferred - Dispreferred response (second-pair part)

  • Offer (acceptance - refusal)
  • Assessment (agreement - disagreement)
  • Blame (denial - admission)
  • Question (expected answer - unexpected answer)

Insertion sequence
cặp chêm xen
Có liên quan tới Adjajency pairs

Side sequence
chuỗi ngoài lề
ko liên quan tới adjajency pairs

Repair
sửa lời

  1. self-repair
  2. Other repair

Pre-sequence
câu rào đón
Tuân thủ principles of politeness
E.g: pre-invitation

DISCOURSE AS DIALOGUE

Discourse Typology: RECIPROCITY

Reciprocal ------ Non-reciprocal

(hỗ tương - qua lại lẫn nhau)
bất cứ loại nói/viết (dialogue) cũng có tương tác, ng nghe/đọc sẽ tác động khiến ng nói/viết adjust

System of information

Information unit

GIVEN - NEW (Theme - Rheme) (Đề-thuyết)

New: is the expected information

Tone Group - Tonic Syllable - Focus

  • Tone groups represent the basic units of information into which a speaker "packages" what he/she has to say
  • Each Tone group contains one syllable that is more prominent than other syllables in the tone group ➡ tiêu điểm thông tin, muốn ng nghe nắm
  • This tonic syllable marks the Focus of information in the tone group

THEME

the first constituent in the clause

1️⃣Topical theme

  • information conveyed in the discourse
  • PHẢI trả lời được WH- questions
  • không bj thiếu được topical theme

Marked theme

khi theme <> subject

Unmarked theme

khi theme = subject

2️⃣Interpersonal theme

  • reveals something of the attitude of the speaker/writer

Modal adjuncts

  • really,
  • probably,
  • possibly
  • presumably

Comment adjuncts (adverbs & prepositional phrases)

  • in my opinion
  • in my view
  • happily
  • unfortunately
  • tragically
  • honestly
  • clearly, ....

Vocatives (hô ngữ)

  • John / Alice
  • Mom
  • My dear / Darling ....

3️⃣Textual theme

  • links a clause to the rest of the discourse

Continuative themes (discourse markers)

well
anyway
now
oh/ah
please

conjunctive adjuncts

  • then
  • however
  • nevertheless
  • therefore

Multiple themes 2️⃣3️⃣1️⃣

  • theme cuối cùng luôn là topical theme
    VD: On the otherhand, in my view, the results do suggest....
    On the other hand: textual theme
    In my view: interpersonal theme
    the results: topical theme

VD: Well, children, the story is about to start.
Well: textual theme
children: interpersonal theme
the story: topical theme

Yes/No question

VD: Are we going to London?
Operator + subject

WH-interrogative

When will we get there?
WH- word

Imperative (câu mệnh lệnh)

VD: Have your ticket ready!
Base form
VD: Let's go for a walk!
Let's

WH-interrogative

VD:We are going where?
Non WH-subject

Imperative

Emphatic do
VD: Do hurry up, all of you!

VD: You keep quiet!
Subject

Theme - Rheme progression

  • Zig-zag pattern (linear theme pattern)
  • Constant pattern (theme reiteration: sự lặp lại)
  • Split-rheme pattern (multiple theme)

KNOWLEDGE STRUCTURES: SCHEMATA

Tri thức nền (pre-existent knowledge)
Số ít: Schema
số nhiều: Schemata

SCHEMA THEORY

  • is a branch of cognitive science concered with how the brain structures knowledge
  • Schema is an organized unit of knowledge for a subject / event.
  • It is based on past experience and is assessed to guide current understanding/action

SCHEMATA

  • are mental representations of typical situations
  • used in discourse processiong to predict the contents of the particular situation which the discourse describes
  • The idea is that the mind, stimulated by key words / phrases in the text / by the context --> activates a knowledge schema --> uses it make sense of the discourse
  • the mind must activate many schemata at once, each interacting with the other.
  • sub-schema

Kinds

1️⃣ Linguistic schemata

  • vocab
  • grammar
  • idioms
  • fixed expressions
    .....

2️⃣ Content schemata

3️⃣ Formal schemata (discourse structure)

Stereotypical patterns

  • Schemata are data structures, representing stereotypical patterns --> we retrieve from memory --> employ in our understanding of discourse


  • Positive: giúp mình get ready + expect cái gì sắp xảy ra

  • Negative: bị thành kiến, không tiếp nhận cái mới

Schematic structure - Sample Analysis

VD: Narratives (chuyện kể)

  1. Orientation (Once upon a time,..)
  2. Complication
    kịch tính
  3. Resolution

VD: Reports

  1. Title
  2. General classification
  3. Resolution