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Immune system - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Cause or Risk factors: Adults 65 or older, sneezing in close proximity, respiratory droplets
      - Symptoms: Ear infection, fever & chills, excessive tiredness
      - Treatment options: Breathing supprt, cetriaxone, cefotaxine
      - Description: Type of bacteria causing interactions
    - - Description: A mild contagious viral infection effecting mouth foot & nose
      - Cause or Risk Factors: Person to person contace, feces, fluid from blisters
      - Symptoms: Fever, mouth sores, feeling unwell
      - Treatment options: Eat soft foods, Drink plenty of fluids, clean blisters
    - - Causes or Risk Factors: HIV infection (w/out treatment), airpone particles droplet nuclei, weak immune system
      - Symptoms: Bad cough, pain in chest, sweating at night
      - Description: Disease cause by germs that can spread from person to person through air
      - Treatment: 4 month rifapentine, 6 or 9 month RIRE, Isoniazied Arifa
    - - Description: Disabling & life threatening virus infection a person spinal cord, causing paralysis
      - Causes or risk factors: Person to person contace, lives in throat, contaminates food/water
      - Symptoms: Paralysis, tiredness, mengitis
      - Treatment: Physical therapy, oral polovirus vaccine (OPV), physical therapy
    - - Description:Vaccine- preventable liver infection by hepatitis
      - Causes or risk factors: Delivery blood to blood contact during birth, piercing & tattooing equipment, sexual contact
      - Symptoms: Fever, nausea, abdominal pain
      - Treatment: Liver transport, interferon injections, antiviral meditations
    - - Causes or risk factors: Virbo cholera OI or OI39, can get by drinking or eat with it, type O blood
      - Description: a diarrheal illness extremely virulent disease
      - Symptoms: watery diarrhea, leg cramps, loss in body fluid
      - Treatment: oral rehydration solution (ORS), replace fluid & salt, drink chamolie
    - - Causes or risk facors: Toxoplasmosis is a toxoplasma gandi parasite, eating uncooked meat, weak immune-risk
      - Description:Food borne illness
      - Symptoms: muscle aches, fatique, eyepain
      - Treatment: antibiotics, combination of drugs csultadiazine, follinic acid, & prime + hamine, healthy=recover without
    - - Description:Toxoplasma gandi parasite, eating uncooked meat, weak immune= high risk
      - Causes or risk factors: piasomodium, pregnant women have HIV/aids more at risk, injects sporozoites
      - Symptoms: High fever, headache, flu-like illness
      - Treatment: Meriquine, chloroquine, hydroxyeniquine
    - - Causes or risk factors: swallowing infecred pinworm, fingernails, bius contaminated surfaces, eggs become airbone & ingested
      - Symptoms: difficult sleeping, itching of anus, loss of apetite
      - Description: white parasitic worms that live in the large intestine of humans
      - Treatment: albendazone, mebenda zone, pyrantel pamoate
    - - Causes or Risk Factors: RNA virus (pathogen), rubella transmitted, direct contact, person to person
      - Symptoms: Headache, cough, runny nose
      - Description: A contagious disease cause by RuV virus
      - Treatment options: No treatment, shortens/treats rubella, mild symptoms helped by, bed or fever
    - - Description: Easily spread respiratory disease
      - Causes or risk factors: Bacteria bordetella pertusis, air, young children
      - Symptoms: common cold, runny nose, low-grade fever
      - Treatment options: Antibiotics, humidifies, eat small meals every few hours
    - - Description: Infection caused by bacteria (lostridumtetal)
      - Causes or risk factors: wounds with dirt, feces, saliva, 1-2 in 10 cases fatal, wounds from needles
      - Symptoms: Jaw cramping, seizure, fever/sweating
      - Treatment options: Aggressive wound care, antibiotics, tentanus vaccination
    - - Causes or risk factors: Humpus virus, measles virus, influenza virus
      - Symptoms: Fever, headache, nausea
      - Description: Inflammation in meninges covering brain * spinal cord
      - Traeatment options: Antiviral medicine, recover in 7-10 days w/out treatment
    - - Description: Measoisis acue viral respiratory illness. highly contagious & can rend to many complications
      - Causes Or Risk Factors: Highly contagious, ear infection, diarrhea, pneusmonia
      - Symptoms: Cough, high fever, rashes
      - Treatment options: Antibiotics, rest, Drink plenty of fluids
    - - Cause or risk factors: Direct contact, herpes in contact w/, infants risked
      - symptoms: Fever, tiredness, fluid filled blisters
      - Description: Highly contagious disease cause by varicells Zaster Virus
      - Treatment options: Vaccine, bed rest, skin lotion
    - - Symptoms: Fever, vomitting, skin rash
      - Treatment: No treatment effective, vaccines antiviral drugs
      - Causes or Risk Factors: Variola virus (pathogen), Cough & sneeze, blindness
      - Description: Serious infectious disease
  - - - research activatinf regulatory T cells, inducing self-tolerance using vaccines; directing antibodies against self-reactive immune cells
  - - - asthma can occur if allegen is inhaled, allergic reactions can be local or systemic
- - - - coded by genes by major histocompatibility complex (MHC) and unique to each individual
      - Contain groove that can hold piece of self-antigen or foreign antigen
        
        T lymphocytes can recognize only antigens that are presented on MHC proteins
  - - - 2 type of lympocytes
        
        B lympocytes humoral immunity
        
        T lymphocytes (T cells) cellular immunity
      - Antigen- presenting cells (APCs)
        
        Do not respond to specofoc antgens
        
        Play essential auxillary roles in immunity
        
        3 major types
        
        Dendritic cells
        
        Found in connective tissues and epidermis, cts as mobile sentinels of boundary tissues
        
        Phagocytize pathogens that enter tissues then enter lymphatics to present antigens to T cells in lymph node
        
        Most effective antigen presenter known
        
        Macrophages
        
        Widely distributed in connective tissues and lymphoid organs
        
        present antigen to T cells which not only activated T cell, but also further activates macrophages
        
        activated macrophages become phagocytic killer, also triggers powerful inflammatory responses and recruit additional defenses
        
        B lymphocyte cells
        
        Do not activate naive T cells
        
        Present antigens to helper T cell to assist their own activation
    - - T & B lymphocytes share common developemnt and steps in their life cylces
        
        5 general steps:
        
        Maturation: Lymphocytes are "educated in 2-3 day process and mature, primarily lymphoid organs ( B cells in bone marrow and thymus)
        
        Immunocompetence: lymphocytes must be able to recognice only 1 specific antifen: B or T cells display nly 1 unqiue type of antigen receptor on surface when mature so bind only1 specific antigen
        
        Self-tolerance lymphocytes must be unresponsive to own antigens
        
        Proliferation and differentiation
        
        Once selected and actvated lymphocyte proliferates, form army of exact copies of itself, referred to as clones, most cones beocome effector cells that light infections
        
        Few remain as memory cells able to respond to same santigen more quickly second time it is encountered
        
        B & T memory cells and effector T cells circulate continuously
        
        Origin: Both lymphocytes originate in red bone marrow
        
        Seeding secondary lymphoid organs and circulation
        
        Immunocompotent B & T cells not yet exposed to antigen are called naive
        
        Exported form primary lymphoid organs to seed secondary lymphoid organs, increasing chance of encounter with antigen
        
        Antigen encounter & activation
        
        Naive lymphocytes 1st encounter with antigen triggers lymphocyte to develop further
        
        Lymphocyte is selected to differentiiate into active cell by binding to its specific antigen
        
        referred to as clonal selection
        
        If correct signals are present, lymphocyte will complete its differentiation into active cell
- - - - Artificially: acquired: Formed in response to vaccine of dead or attenuated pathogens
      - Naturally: acquired: Formed in response to actual bacteria or vital infection
  - - - Artificially acquired: Injection of serum, gamma, globulin, protection immediate but ends when antibodies naturally degrade in bofy
      - Natural acquired: Antibody deliver to fetus (placenta) or infant
- - - - Elaborates netowrk of drainage vessels, circulating 3L terstitial fluid per day
      - Once interstitial fluid enters lymphatics it is called lymph
      - Distribution & structure of Lymphatic vessels: Lympathtic vessels include lymphatic capillaries & large lymphatic vessels
      - Lymphatic capilarries: Blind ended vessels that weave between tissue cells & blood capillaries
        
        absent from bones, teeth, & bone marrow
        
        Once thought to be absent from CNS, but now found to be present but, limited to location in meninges where they help to drain interstitial fluid & CSF
        
        Similar to blood capillaries, but more pemeable
        
        Take up larger molecules & particles that blood capillaries cannot, ex: proteins, cell debris, pathogens, and cancer cells
        
        Can act as route for pathogens or cancel cells to travel throughout body
        
        Lacreals: Specialized lymph capillaries present intestinal mucosa, fatty lymph (chyle) to the blood
      - collects vessels in skin travel with superficial veins but, deep vessels that travel with arteries
      - lymph trunks are formed by union of largest collecting vessels, drain large areas of body
        
        names of regions they drain
        
        Paired subclavian
        
        Paired Jugular trunks
        
        Paired bronchomediastinal
        
        Paired Lumbar
        
        Paired intestinal trunks
        
        lymph is delivered from trunks into 1 or 2 large lymphatic ducts
        
        Right lymohatic ducts drains right, upper arm & right side of head & thorax
        
        thoracic duct drain rest of body, in about half of individuals starts out as an enlarged sac, cisternal chyli
    - - low-pressure system like venous
      - lymph is propelled by same mechanisms, milking action, valves to prevent backflow, smooth muscles in wall lymphatics
  - - - made up of 2 intristic systems
        
        Adaptive
        
        3rd line:Specific, attacks particular foreign substances takes longer to react than innate
        
        Innate
        
        1st lines of defense: external body membranes skin & mucosae)
        
        2nd line of defense: ANtomicrobial proteins, phagocytes and other cells ( inhibits spread of invades inflammation most important mechanism)
- - - - surafce barriers are skin & mucous membranes, along w/ their secretions
      - physical barrier to microorganisms
      - kerartin is resistant to most weak acids and bases, bacterua enzymes and toxins
      - mucosae provide similar mechanical barriers
      - skin mucous membranes produce protective chemucals that inhibit or destroy microorganisms
        
        Acid: Acidity of skin & some mucous secretions inhibits growth called acid mantle
        
        Mucin: sticky mucus that lines digestive & respiratory tract traps microorganism
        
        enzymes: lysozyme of saliva, respiratory mucus & lacriminal fluid kills many microorgansms; enzymes in stomach kill many microorganism
      - respiratory system also has modifications to pathogens
        
        mucous coated hairs in nose trap inhaled particles
        
        cilla of upper respiratory tract sweep dust & bacteria laden mucus toward nouth
    - - Innate system necessary if microorganisms invade deeper tissues, includes
        
        phagocytes
        
        Natural killer cells
        
        inflammatory response (macrophages, mast cells, WBCs & inflammatory chemicals)
        
        Antimicrobal proteins (interferons & complement proteins)
        
        fever
      - Many 2nd line cells have pattern recognition receptors: that recognize bind tightly to structures on microbes, disarming them before they do harm
  - - - specific defensive systemt hat eliminates almost any pathogen or abnormal cell in body, takes longer to react than innate
- - - - It is systemic: Not restricted to initial site
      - It has memory: mounts an even stronger attack to "known" antigens (2nd & subsequent exposures
      - It is specific recognizes and targets specific antigens
      - Has 2 main branches of adaptive system
        
        Cellular ( cell-mediated) immunity (T cells)
        
        Lymphocytes act against target cell
        
        Directly -by killing infected cells, indirectly by releasing chemicals that enhance inflammatory response; or activating other lymphocytes or macrophages
        
        Hummoral (antibody-mediated) immunity (B cells)
        
        Antibodies produced by lymphcytes, circulate freely in body fluids, bind temporarily to target cell, mark for destruction
  - - - 1st line of defense: external body membranes (skin & mucosae)
- - - - antibodies specifric for that particular antigen are then produced
    - - B cells are activated when antigens bind to surface receptrors, cross-linking them, triggers receptors-mediated endocytosis of cross-linking antigen-receptor comples ( clonal selection) leading to proliferation and differentiation of B cell into effector cells
      - Most clone cells become plasma cells antibody-secreting effector cells
      - Secrete specific antibodies at rate of 2000 molecules per second for 4 to 5 days
      - Antibodies circulate in blood or lymph, binding to free antigens, marking them for destruction by innate or other adaptive mechanism
      - Clone cells that do not become plasma cells become memory cells
      - Mount an immune response to future exposure to same antigen
    - - primary immune response: cell proliferation & differentiation upon exposure to antigen for 1st time
      - Lag period: 3 to 6 days peak levels of palsma antibody are reached in 10 days
      - Antibody levels then decline
      - secondary immune response
        
        Re-exposure to same antigen gives faster, more prolonges more effective response
        
        Sensitized memory cells provide imunological memory
        
        Respond within hours, not days
        
        Antibody levels peak in 2 to 3 days at much higher levels
        
        Antibody level can remain high for weeks to months
        
        Antibodies bind w/ greater affinity
    - - Active humoral immunity
        
        Occurs when is cells encounter antigens and produce specific antibodies against them
        
        Naturally acquire: Formed in response to actual bacteria or viral infection
        
        Artificiall accquired: Formed in response to vaccine of dead or attenuated pathogens
      - Passive humoral immunity
        
        Occures when ready-made antibodies are introduced into body
        
        Protection ends when antibodies degrade
        
        2 type of passve humoral immunity
        
        Artificially acquired: Injection of serum, gamma globulin protection immediate but, ends when antibodies naturally degrade in body
        
        Naturally acquired: Antibody deliver to fetus (placenta) or infant
        
        B cells are not challenges by antigens immunological memordy does not occur
  - - - 2 population of T cells, CD4 cells usually become helper T cells (T4) that can activate B cells, other T cells & macrophages direct adaptive immune responses, some become reulatory T cells, which moderate immune response
      - can also become memory T cells
      - CD8 cells become cytoxic T cells (Tc) that are capable of destroying cells, also become memory T cells
      - Helped cytotoxic and regulatory T cells activated T cells
      - Naive T cells are simply termed CD4 or CD8 cells
      - MHC proteings & Antigen Presentation
        
        T cells respond only to processed fragments of antiens displayed on surfaces of cells by Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins
        
        Antigen presentation is vital for activation of naive T ce;;s & normal functioning or effector T cells
        
        Antigen presentation is vital for activation of naive T cells & normal functionings of effector T cells
- - - - Contain antigentic determinants
      - Can be self antigens ( All cells are covered w/ variety of proteins located on surace that are antigenic to others in transfusions or graft
  - - - 2 identical heavy (H) chains w/ hinge region at middles
      - 2 identical light (L) chains
    - - Antibodies do not destoy antigens; they inactivate & tag them
        
        form antigen0antibody (immune) complexs
      - Defensive mechanisms used by antibodies
        
        Agglutination
        
        Process refer agglutination
        
        EX; clump od mismatched blood cells
        
        Allows for antigen-antibody complexes to become crosslinked into large lattice like clumps
        
        Precipiation
        
        Soluable molecules (instead od cells) are corss linked into complexes
        
        COmplexes precipitate out of solution
        
        Precipated complexes are easier for phagocytes to engulf
        
        1 Neutralization
        
        Antibodies block specific sites on viruses or bacterial exotoxins
        
        Prevent antigens from binding rto receptors on tissue cells
        
        SImplest but one of most important defensive mechanisms
        
        Antigen-antibody complexes undergo phagocytosis
        
        Complement Fixation & activation
        
        Main antibody defense against cellulat antigens (bacteria, mismatched RBCs)
        
        When several antibodies are bound close together on same antigen, complement-binding sites on their stem regions are aligned
    - - Recent exception found antibodies can act intracellularly if ayyached to virus before it enters cells
      - Antibodies go after extracellular pathogens; they do not invade solid tissue unless lesson is present
      - Antigen -antibody complexes do not destoy antigens; they prepare for them for destruction by innate defenses
      - Axtivate mechanisms that destoy virus
- - - - injection of exogenous antigenous antibodies (ganma globulin)
    - - vaccine: dead or attenuated pathogens
  - - - infection: contact w/ pathogens
    - - antibody deliver to fetus (placenta) or infant
        
        Antibodies passed from mother to fetus via placenta ; or infant in her milk
- - - - Nodes
        
        principal secondary lumphoid organs of body
        
        Hundred of nodes are found throughout body
        
        Most are embedded deep in connective tissues in clusters along lymphatic vessels
        
        Some are nearer to body structure in inguinal axillant and cervical regions of body, connective vessels converge in trunks
        
        2 main functions of lymph nodes
        
        Immune system activation offers a place for lymphocytes to become activated and mount an attack against antigens
        
        cleanses the lymph: acts as lymph filers
        
        macrophages remove and destroy microorganisms and debris that enter lymph
        
        prvents unwanted substances from being delivered to blood
        
        structure: Vary in size but most are bean shaped, small less than 2,5 cm
        
        surrounded by external fibrous capsule
        
        Capsule fiber extent inward as trabeulae that divides node into compartments
        
        2 historically distinct regions of node
        
        Cortex: superficial area of cortex contains follicles with germinal centers that are heavy eith dividing cells
        
        medulla: extend inward from cortex and contain B cells, T cells and plasma cells
        
        Lymph sinues are found throughout the body, consists of large lymphatic capillaries spanned by crisscrossing reticular fibers, macrophages reside on fibers checking for phagoytizing any foreign matter
        
        circulation in lymph nodes
        
        lymph enters conves side of node via afferent lymphatic vessels travels through large subcapsular sinus and then into smaller sinuses found through out cortex and medulla
        
        lymph enters medullary sinuses, and then finally exits concave side at hilum via efferent lymphatic vesse;s, presence of fewer efferent vessels causing flow to somewhat stagnate; allowing lymphocytes and macrophages time to function
        
        lymph travels through several nodes
      - spleen
        
        Spleen is blood-rich organ about size of fist located in left side of abdominal cavity, just below stomach
        
        largest lymphoid organ
        
        several by spelnic artery and vein which enter and exit hilium
        
        functions: Site of lymphocyte proliferation and immune survelliance and response cleanse blood of aged blood cells and platelets; macrophages remove debris
      - MALT
        
        Proects from pathogens trying to enter body
        
        Found in mucosa of respiratory tract genitourinary organs, and digestive tract; largest collections of MALT found in
        
        Mucosa-associated lymphoid tissue (MALT)- lymphoid tissues in mucous membranes throughout body
        
        Tomsils
        
        simplest of the lymphoid organs
        
        form rings of lymphatic tissue around pharynx; appear as swellings of mucosa
        
        Named according to location
        
        palatine tonsils: at posterior end of oral cavity
        
        at posterior end of oral cavity
        
        Lungual tonsil: lumpy collection of follicles at base of tongue
        
        Pharyngeal tonsil: Also called adenoids; located in posterior wall of nasopharynx
        
        Tubal tonsils: surround openings of auditory tubes into pharynx
        
        Tonsils function to gather & remove pathogens in food or air
        
        contain follicles w/ germinal centers and scattered lymphocytes
        
        are not fully encapsulated
        
        overlying epithelium invaginates, forming tonsilar crypts
        
        Bacteria or particulate matteer enters crypts, where they are trapped & destroyed
        
        risky to lure bacteria into tissues, but allows immune cells to become activated and build memory cells against these potential pathogens
        
        peyes patches
        
        CLusters of lymphoid folllicles in wall of distal positive portion of small ntestine, also called aggregated lymphod nodules
        
        location aids in function
        
        destroy bacteria, preventing them from breaching intestinal wall
        
        Generate "memory" lymphocytes
        
        Appendix
        
        offshoot of 1st part of large intestine
        
        contains large # of lymphoid follicles
        
        location aids in functionms (liek peyer's patches)
        
        Generate "memory" lymphocytes
        
        Destroy bacteria preventing them from breaching intestinal wall
      - diffused lymphoid tissue
    - - T & B cells originate in bone marrow, but only B cells mature there; T cells mature in thymus
      - Thymus: Bilobed lymphoid organ found in inferior neck
        
        Extends into mediastinum & partially overlies heart
        
        Functions as lymphoid organ where T cells mature
        
        Most active & largest in size during childhood
        
        Stops growing during adolescence then growing atrophies
        
        still produces immune competent cells, through more slowly
        
        broken into lobules that contain outer cortex and inner medulla
        
        cortex contains rapid dividing lymphocytes (the bulk of thymic cells) and scattered macrophages
        
        medulla contains fewer lymphocytes and thymic corpuscles are where regulatory T cells develop
        
        regulatory T cells develop, regulatory T cells: Type of T cell that helps prevent autoimmunity
        
        Differs from other lymphoid organs in important ways
        
        Does NOT directly fight antigens, functions strictly in T lymphocyte maturation
        
        functions dtrictly in T ly,phocyte maturation
        
        contains blood thymus barriers keeps immature T lymphocytes isolated from any antigens to prevent premature activation
        
        Storma is made up of epithelial cells, not reticular fibers, provide enviornment in which T lymphocytes become immunocompetent
        
        Has no follicles because it lacks B cells