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Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855-1894 - Coggle Diagram
Trying to preserve autocracy, 1855-1894
The Russian autocracy in 1855 (context)
Political context
Russia was an autocratic empire and the tsar was at the head of it
God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power (Divine)
The tsar had advisors and ministers but they were all chosen by the Tsar himself, no one could do anything without the tsars approval
His main advisory bodies were the
Imperial council
or
Chancellery
The council of ministers were a body of about 14 ministers in charge of different government departments
Based in St Petersburg and relied on the support of the provincial nobility
Had the worlds largest army of conscripted serfs that were forced into service for 25 years living in a military colony
in order to maintain the autocracy, the country had developed into a police state that prevented freedom of speech, freedom of the press and travelling abroad
Economic context
When Alexander the second came to the throne in 1855 Russia was economically behind the rest of Europe and remained mostly rural with a ration of 11:1 village to town dwellers (2:1 in Britain)
vast territory but much of it was inhospitable putting strains on potential economic developement within the country
The lack of progress within Russia was predominantly down to their commitment to a serf based economy
Serf living conditions were poor and little incentive or opportunity for them to develop into 'wage-earners'
No internal market demand with little purchases made by the serf pop
Other end of the scale you had the small landowning elite who obtained most of what they needed from their serfs in the form of service and feudal dues
Sytem was fasiling but the land owning elites did not look for alternate ways to acccumalte money because of the little use it had within the Russian economy
Social context
Starkly divided between the serf population and the small land owning elite
The land owning elite consisted of the clergy, nobility, civil and military officials and the royal court
Huge absence of any coherent middle class which was becoming a dominant class in other countries in Europe
There was a small number of professionals e.g. doctors and teachers
The impact of the crimean War 1853-56
A war was provoked with the Ottoman Turks because Nicholas 1st was acting as the protector of the christians in their territory in the hopes to increase Russian influence
Russians were stronger, the French and British were anxious about protecting their own trading interests in the area and joined the war in defence of Turkey
60,000 Men were sent to Russian Crimea, russia suffered badly due to their outdated leadership and poor transport
The Russians were defeated in 1854
The fighting had exposed Russias military and administrative inadequacies and the war was little short of disastrous of the Russians
The intelligentsia renewed their cries for something to be done to close the gap between Russia and the west : Treaty of Paris added the final humiliation by preventing Russian warships from using the Black Sea in times of peace
Alexander II (The great reformer)
Reform
Emancipation of the serfs
Alexander II decision to emancipate the 51 million serfs living within Russia in
1861
has been hailed as the product of the Tsars own liberal, humanitarian ideas
Set Russia on a new path of reform
Has been perceived as an attempt to 'Strengthen social and political stability' rather than just 'liberal' thinking from an enlightened tsar
A2 reforms were intended to maintain tsarist authority however created divisions between the Tsarist government and the landed Gentry on whom the government relied on
The reforms actually weakened faith in the Tsar as being capable of leading effective change
Emancipation Edict, 1861
initial applied only to the privately owned serfs although the state serfs received their freedom in
1866
Granted them freedom and an allotment of land with landowners receiving government compensation
Freed serfs were required to pay
Redemption Payments
to the government over 49 years for their land
Would have to remain within their peasant commune (mir) until these redemption payments had been made
The
Mir
was made responsible for the distribution of allotments, controlling the farming, and collecting the peasants taxes.
Volosts
were established to supervise the mir' and they ran their own courts replacing the landlords' jurisdiction over serfs
Results of emancipation
Kulaks
, did well out of the land allocations, They were able to buy up extra land to produce surplus grain for export
Others sold up their allocation and found work in the industrialising cities
However, many peasants felt cheated because the land allocations were rarely fair, the small allotments provided little opportunity to adopt new farming methods and the mir proved to be a highly traditional institution
This meant that farming + technical backwardness persisted and by
1871 only 50% of the peasantry was capable of producing a surplus
Motives for reform
A2 surrounded by lots of progressive figures that would have influenced his decision on wether to emancipate the serfs, e.g. Milyutin brothers
Increase in peasant uprising in the 1840s, would not have posed any threat to the autocracy but would have added weight to the argument for emancipation
Humiliation of the Crimean war served as a big catalyst for the emancipation,
Dmitiri Milyutin
who was the minister of war from 61-81 pleaded for reform in order to strengthen the state and restore dignity after their defeat
He believed the army had to be modernised and only a 'free' population would be capable of providing the labour needed for much needed military improvement
Military reform 1874-75
Dmitry Milyutin
reorganised the armed forces to create a smaller + more professional army that would cost less
Did this through:
Conscripution compulsory for all classes but service was reduced to 15 years from 25
Better medical care was established and punishments were less severe
modern weaponry introduced
Literacy within the army was improved
Local government reforms 1846-70
A system of elected and local councils was established to replace the rights and obligations of the former serf-owning Gentry. Both district and provincial levels
Were known as
zemstva/zemstvo
and were chosen through a system of
electoral colleges
Judiciary reforms
-
Education reforms (1863-64)
abolition of serfdom increased need for basic literacy and numeracy among peasants
Golovin: Educational minister
Universities given oppurtunity to govern themselves independantly
schooling responsibility given to the
Zemstva
from the orthodox church
Schools declared open to all regardless of class and sex
Counter-reform
under Tolstoy
, felt a tight control over education was necessary
Zemstvas power over education was reduced and the church regained its authority over rural schools
Censorship reform
Relaxation of press cencorship extended to all books and newspapers
Saw restrictions on publishers reduced and led to a short lived growth in number of books and newspapers on sale
Adopted a more repressive approach in his later years as ruler after a failed assassination attempt in
1866
shook him up a bit
police, law and control
police were strengthened and the prosecution of ethnic minorities was stepped up
'Show' trials were established in order to deter others from revolutionary activity
Searches and arrests were increased
Assassination of A2
13th march 1881
, the members of the revolutionary group
The peoples will
problem posed by ethnic minorities
Very diverse population within Russia with over 100 different ethnic groups within the Empire
Posed continual change for the tsarist autocracy, the development of national ideology within the 19th century provoked ethnic groups to assert their individual identities
The Russians wanted to assert their national superiority over the empire
A2 and the ethnic minorities
Concerned with control and not racial superioirty
1863
,
Polish rebellion broke out
through the use of Guerrilla warfare, A2 soundly crushed the rebellion by 1864 after he sent his brother there. However, did not engage in the systematic prosecution of the minorities and instead provided concessions to retain the control
Decrees in 1864 and 1875 allowed the Latvians and Estonians to convert back to Lutheranism
(their religion) where orthodoxy had been previously enforced
Anti-Semitism
Suffered the most from the intense nationalisation
Under A2 anti-semitism existed among the poorer elements of society because of the teachings of the Orthodox Church and their hatred of the Jews personal wealth
A2 allowed the Jews to settle elsewhere until the Polish revolt in 1863 scared him into withdrawing his concessions. This in turn encouraged the growth of anti-Semitism within the country
Opposition
Moderate liberals
Small group however they grew with A2's initial reforms
Liberal intellectuals now had the benefit of education growing the literate population of Tsarist Russia
were split between the
Westiners
, who wanted to 'catch up with the west' and the
Slavophiles
who favoured a superior 'Russian' path to the future
The Zemstva provided a natural home for the liberal opposition who wanted reform of the autocracy and more than just local representation (national representation)
Radical Opposition
Youth's often took a more radical approach than the older generations
1862
, series of fires in St Petersburg destroyed over 2000 shops
the Tchaikovsky circle
named after Nikolai Tchaikovsky its most prominent member
Set up in
1868
and was primarily a literary society that organised printing, publishing and distribution of revolutionary litewrature
Very small circle across st Petersburg but they sought social revolution
Populists
Idea of going to the people became known as populism and under A2 people went to the countryside and attempted to persuade the peasantry that the future of Russia depended on the peasant commune
Wanted to exploit the resentment felt since the Emancipation about the peasants lack of land and their heavy tax burdens
Helped to take radicalism out of the underground meeting rooms and into the countryside
populism: Land and Liberty
set up in 1877 and continued the populist tradition
Sought to work within the peasant communes as doctors and teachers in a less obtrusive manner
Carried out some political organisations and worked with the zamstva to place more pressure o the autocracy for constitutional reform
Split into two in
1879
The peoples will
Led by
Mikhailov
Bigger group than black repartition and advocated for violent methods
It declared that the Tsar had to be removed unless he agreed to a constitution
He of course did not and they assassinated him in
1881
Black repartition
Organised by
Plekhanov
Wanted to share and partition the black soil provinances of russia amongst the peasants
Worked peacefully merely publishing radical literature in the hope of stimulating social change
Alexander III (the Great reactionary)
Change in direction
A3 sought a change in direction within Russia after he came to power
He was tutored by
Pobedonostev
and was brought up With the belief that he alone, directed by God, could decide what was right for his country
Pobedonostev
very close to A3 and had a strong influence on the Tsars behaviour
Spoke out for absolutism, nationalism and anti-semitism in A3 accession manifesto
A3 would have also been heavily influenced by the fact he had watched his father die to revolutionary activity
As a result he was incredibly fearful of revolutionary activity
Counter-reforms
Local government
'Land captains'
were created and appointed in 1889 and had the power to override elections to the zemstvo and could disregard the zemstvos decisions
The land captains were responsible for law enforcement and could ignore the normal judiciary process
1890
, An act placed the Zemstva under central government control reducing their influence
An attempt to reimpose the hand of central government and reassearted the power of the local nobility in turn reducing the power of the zamstva
Policing
Increase in branches within the police with the recruitment of spies and counter-spies to try and identify revolutionary threats
The police had tremendous power over peoples lives since anyone arrested had no right to legal representation
The Ohkrana
Education
Overseen by
Delyanov
university charter in
1884
meant the appointment of professors subject to the approval of the Education ministry who employed based on religion and patriotism not academic grounds
All uni's were also closed to women and uni life was closely observed
Lower class kids: only primary school education which was no in the power of the Orthodox Church firmly
These changes were questionable in effectiveness with their failure to prevent student involvement in illegal political movements
Censorship
Tolstoy in 1882
issued the so called 'temporary' regulations
Allowed for newspapers to be closed down and life bans on publishers able to be enforced
Censorship also extended to theatre and art where A3 'Russification' was enforced
Russification under A3
Finland
Their parliament was reorganised in
1892
to weaken its political influence
The use of the Russian language was increasingly demanded
Russian coinage replaced their former currency
poland
Poland national bank was closed in
1885
Schools and universities within Poland were not allowed to teach the Polish language subject and religion had to be russian
All Polish literature had to be studied in Russian
Anti-semitism
Encouraged under A3 with ministers such as
pobedonostev
A3 was anti-Semitic largely on religious grounds however he also had his political concerns with the press convincing him that the Jews had orchestrated the assassination against his father
The Pogroms 1881-84
Concentration of Jews in the pale made them ready targets for the anti-Jewish pogroms that broke out in 1881
Most likely because it was highly encouraged by the Ohkrana using the link between Jews and the death of A2
Governing authorities did little to curb the violence that consisted of the Burning of jewish property, shops and businesses with many incidents of rape and murder
Impact of anti-Semitism
Many Jews left the country following the pogroms and some were forced out
1890
, Jews who had settled outside the pale began to be deported and expelled
The effect of all these policies was to drive the Jewish population that remained in Russia towards revolutionary groups
Baltic Germans + Others
Between
1885 and 1889
were subject to aggressive Russification
Use of Russian in all state offices, schools and police force
The limitations of language were also enforced on other provinces such as Ukraine
Results of Russification
Not accepted without resistance,
1888
estimated 332 cases of mass disturbance in 61 of Russias 92 provinances. However, these kind of disturbances were swiftly and easily curbed by the military
Created resentment within the nobility of the provinances
Ethnic schools survives (rare) and secret publication of books continues creating a fiery hatred for the Tsarist regime
General beliefs were that the policy was misguided and has the opposite effect of that intended e.g wanted to unite the country and allow for modernisation and increase the strengtht of Russia. However, led to Intensification of national feelings within the non-Russian areas of Russia
A3 engaged in a policy of 'cultural Russification' which sought to merge the Tsars subjects into a single nation with a single identity
Prevalent in Poland and Finland in particuilar
Opposition
Moderate liberals
Under A3 the restriction of the zemstva powers dissapointed the liberals
Westernisers appeal grew with the march towards industrialistion with some going towards socialism
1891
famine increased convictions that the Tsarist government needed to change and the zamstva being largely responsible for the relief work after this provided confidence in a newer more reformed system
Radical opposition
The assassination of A2 marked a turning point with security being stepped up and A3 living in an even more fortified palace
These measures effectively ended the populist movement with very little windows of opportunity for revolutionary activity
'Emancipation of Labour'
, Plekhanov established the group with the intention to smuggle Marxist writings into Russia and to prove that out was fully applicable there
Self-education circles
also continued to exist reproducing the writings of foreign socialists
Overall in the 1890's opposition appeared to stand little chance of success in the face of tsarist repression
However, with the speed up of industrialisation, marxist discussion groups developed and radical ideas began to spread again
Economic and Social developements
Economic
The backward Russian economy began to develop after the defeat of the Crimean war and emancipation
The state played an active role in promoting industry. Financial policies and the encouragement of overseas investment and expertise were crucial
(Von Reutern)
Peasantry forced to support industrialisation by the drive to export grain and an increase in indirect taxation
(Vyshnegradsky0
Railway developement was a crucial first step to really kickstart economy
(Witte)
Von Reutern
MInister of finance from
1862-78
Produced a series of reforms designed to boost the economy through the state, it had to be through the state because of Russias lack of a middle class at the time that was driving the western countries economies
Consisted of:
Foreign investment in Russia was encouraged
Government subsides were offered to enable private entrepreneurs to develop railways
Results
Railway market saw an expansion
An annual growth rate of 6% in the economy under
Von Reutern
Despite the improvements Russias economy remained comparatively weak compared to the west
A third of all government expenditure went on debts and the peasantry remained poor
Domestic markets remained small
Vyshnegradsky
1887-1892
Increased indirect taxes and wanted to drive forward grain exports
Lead to an 18% increase in Grain exports and the Russian budget was in surpless
This was at the expense of the peasantry population who saw their grain requisitioned by the state
Meant their was little to eat within Russia because it was all getting exported by
vyshnegradskys
policy
The great famine saw his dismissal in
1892
as his policies made the famine worse
Witte
Succeeded
Vyshnegradsky
Totally committed to economic modernisation as a means of curbing revolutionary activity
Wanted Heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital
Saw a huge expanision of the railway through foreign expert help and overseeing
Saw a lot of growth during Witte in particular
Agriculture
Emancipation failed to bring any fundamental change in agricultural practice
High taxes, grain requisitions, redmption payments and the traditional farming practises perpetuated by the mir meant agricultural change was more or less impossible
Kulak class massively boosted agricultural production during the 70s and 80s as they responded positively to
Vyshnegradskys
Exportation drive
However, the famine in
1892
showed that Russia was still faces with the same economic problem prior to the emancipation, the peasants had too little land to become prosperous
Social
Emancipation and industrialisation also brought social change affecting landowners, a growing 'middle class', expanding the ranks of urban workers and causing greater social division in the countryside
The Orthodox Church maintained a strong cultural influence throughout, used by the state to keep the population under control
The landed elite
After the emancipation many abandoned farming in favour of more prosperous activities
Although there were changes to their positions within society e.g farming to professors and businessmen they still retained much of their previous wealth and status
In effect society remained highly stratified
The middle class
Urban and industrial expansion + an increase in educational opportunities lead to an increase in the middle class
Bankers, doctors and teachers were in high demand
Lots of oppurtunities being provided for the middle class with government contracts building railways and factories
Urban working class
Expansion of industry was accompanied by a growth in the urban working population. However, the population still remained very small
Still very common for peasants to move to the towns to work temporarily while returning to villages at peak times for harvest
Only enticing feature of the city was regular wages for the peasants. However, payments were rarely generous despite this
posistion of the peasantry
Kulaks, at the top of the peasantry and saw profit and better living conditions post emancipation
Poorer peasants, found life getting harsher and depended on others.
Stat: two out of every three former serf were unable to feed the household without falling into debt
Stat: Average life expectancy was around 28 for the peasantry
Culturual influence of the church
70% of the population subscribed to the orthodox church
The Tsar possessed a divine right to rule with a holiness making him a saint upon earth
The moral domination of the Orthodox Church over the highly superstitious and ill-educated peasantry was hugely beneficial to the regime as a means of control
A3's Russification policy allowed him to promote orthodoxy throughout the Empire, converting numerous peoples and religions during the process