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Principles of Managment, managers begin with the more general domain…

- - - - Is the idea that for complex issues we cannot be completely rational because we cannot fully grasp
        all the possible alternatives, nor can we understand all the implications of every possible alternative.
    - - is the tendency of decision
        
        managers don’t always make the right decision initially, and it may not
        be clear that a decision was a bad one until after some time has passed.
    - - Managers often face time constraints that can make effective decision-making a challenge.
        
        The best managers are constantly assessing the risks associated with acting too quickly against those associated with not acting quickly enough
    - - In addition, managers frequently make decisions under conditions of uncertainty—they cannot know the
        outcome of each alternative until they’ve actually chosen that alternative.
        
        That uncertainty can make it difficult for some managers to make
        decisions, because committing to one option means forgoing other options.
    - - This “similar to me” bias and preference for the familiar can lead to a variety of problems for
        managers
        
        Our decision-making is also limited by our own biases.
    - - Both of them are going to be uncomfortable
        
        The situation is likely to involve conflict.which most people find stressful.
  - - - Programmed
        decisions
        
        Heuristics (mental shortcuts)
        
        Satisficing (choosing first acceptable solution
      - Nonprogrammed
        decisions
        
        Be creative
        
        Talk to other people.
        
        Conduct research; engage in evidence-based
        decision-making.
        
        Engage in critical thinking.
        
        Think about the long-term implications.
        
        Consider the ethical implications.
    - - For situations in which the quality of the decision is more critical than the time spent on the decision, decision
        makers can use several tactics.
        
        Recognize that a decision needs to be made.
        
        Generate multiple alternatives.
        
        Analyze the alternatives.
        
        Select an alternative.
        
        Implement the selected alternative.
        
        Evaluate its effectiveness.
  - - - With nonprogrammed decisions, information is more likely to be ambiguous or
        incomplete.
  - - - An advantage to involving groups in decision-making is that you can incorporate different perspectives and
        ideas. For this advantage to be realized, however, you need a diverse group.
    - - Some groups get bogged down by conflict, while others go
        to the opposite extreme and push for agreement at the expense of quality discussions.
  - - - The reflective system is logical, analytical, deliberate, and methodical,
      - the reactive system is quick, impulsive, and intuitive, relying on emotions or habits to provide cues for what
        to do next.
      - Reactive Decision-Making
        
        We tend to assume that the logical, analytical route leads to superior decisions, but whether this is accurate
        depends on the situation.
      - Reflective Decision-Making
        
        The quick route is not always the best decision-making path to take, however. When faced with novel and
        complex situations, it is better to process available information logically, analytically, and methodically.
      - The Role of Emotions
        
        Emotions can serve as powerful signals about what we should do, especially in situations with ethical
        implications.
  - - - Members of the top management team regularly make decisions that affect the future of the organization and
        all its stakeholders,
        
        Deciding When to Decide
        
        Sometimes managers are asked to make decisions that go beyond just upsetting someone—theymay be
        asked to make decisions in which harm could be caused to others
        
        These decisions have ethical or moral
        implications
        
        however, make decisions that impact others. It is therefore important to be mindful
        about whether our decisions have a positive or a negative impact.
- - - - goals that are interrelated- official and operational goals.
        
        official goals
        
        . Official goals are an organization’s general aims as expressed in public statements, in its annual report, and in its charter.
        
        Official goals are usually ambiguous and oriented toward achieving acceptance by an organization’s constituencies.
        
        operationals goals
        
        Operational goals reflect management’s specific intentions. These are the concrete goals that organization members are to pursue.
        
        In short, goals define organizational purpose, motivate accomplishment, and provide a yardstick against which progress can be measured.
    - - There are two different views about how organizational goals are formulated.
        
        The first view focuses on an organization and its external environment.
        
        Organizational goals emerge as managers try to maintain the delicate balance between their organization’s needs and those of its external environment.
        
        goals must enable an organization’s internal components to work in harmony.
        
        The second view concentrates on the set of dynamics in the organization’s internal environment
        
        Internally, an organization is made up of many individuals, coalitions, and groups who continually interact to meet their own interests and needs.
    - - Peter Drucker offers the perspective that organizations must simultaneously pursue multiple goals.
        
        Drucker believes that to achieve organizational success, managers must try to achieve multiple goals simultaneously—namely, market standing, innovation, productivity, profitability; physical and financial resources, manager performance and development, employee performance and attitude, and public responsibility.
      - Broad organizational goals, such as productivity, innovation, and profitability, are likely to be broken into subgoals at various organizational levels.
        
        The complexities posed by many interrelated systems of goals and major plans can be illustrated by a goal hierarchy.
        
        Thus, an organization sets organizational-level, divisional level, departmental-level, and job-related goals
  - - - In spite of the advantages to be gained by planning, many managers resist it.
        
        In-process planning works extremely well when individuals have a sense of what it is that they want to achieve and can improvise as they move forward in a sea of uncertainty and turbulence
        
        Instead of preplanning, sometimes referred to as blueprint planning (that is, formulating outcome and action statements before moving forward), many managers simply fail to plan or at best engage in in-process planning.
    - - effective organizational goals should be difficult but
        
        reachable with effort.
        
        be specific and clearly identify what is desired
        
        be accepted by and have the commitment of those who will help achieve them
        
        be developed by employees if such participation will improve the quality of the goals and their acceptance.
        
        and be monitored for progress regularly.
    - - Classical management thinking advocates a separation of “planning” and “doing.”
        
        managers plan for technical core employees and formulate most of the plans for the upper levels of the organization
        
        Implementation of a management-by-objectives program for example, is one means by which this participative planning can be realized
    - - Professional planners develop organizational plans and help managers plan.
        
        Organizations have planning specialists and planning departments in place for a variety of reasons.
        
        At times, effective planning requires an objectivity that managers and employees with vested interests in a particular set of organizational activities cannot provide.
  - - - the three types of hierarchical plans are strategic, administrative, and operating
        
        The three hierarchical plans are interdependent, as they support the fulfillment of the three organizational needs
        
        In the organization’s hierarchy, the technical core plans day-to-day operations.
      - Strategic Plans
        
        deals with the general integration of the
        internal and external divisions of the organization
        
        Strategic management formulates and implements tactics that attempt to align an organization
        
        as close to your task environment as possible to meet your goals
        
        Operating plans provide direction and action statements for activities in the organization’s technical core
        
        Administrative plans work to integrate institutional-level plans with the operating plans and tie together all
        of the plans created for the organization’s technical core
    - - Some plans are used repeatedly; others are used for a single purpose.
    - - This need to address the
        future through planning is reflected in short-, medium-, and long-range plans.
        
        Short-, medium-, and long-range plans differ in more ways than the time they cover.
        
        Typically, the further a
        plan projects into the future, the more uncertainty planners encounter.
    - - They are implemented to create a project structure by documenting the resources needed to achieve the project objectives.
    - - also referred to as scenario or “what if” planning
        
        Contingency plans are created to deal with what might happen if these
        assumptions turn out to be wrong.
      - Contingency planning is thus the development of alternative courses of action to be implemented if events disrupt a planned course of action
        
        Most contingency plans are never implemented, but when needed, they
        are of crucial importance
  - - - Two approaches
        
        The mechanistic organization
        
        Both activities tend to be lodged with
        management in the organizational hierarchy
        
        The organic organization
        
        Places the employee as an active player in both the planning and controlling activity
  - - - involves an extensive search for alternatives and analyzes relevant information, is systematic in nature, and is
        commonly participative
    - - It is at this step that managers build the foundation on which they will develop their plans
      - This
        foundation specifies the current state of an organization, signals
        
        commitments,
        
        strengths
        
        weaknesses
        
        establishes a vision of the future
      - managers at this point must understand their organization and its history
    - - where the organization is headed, or is going to end up
        
        It involves setting goals
        
        managers at various levels in an organization's hierarchy set goals
      - Goal vs. Domain Planning
        
        managers develop a course of action
        that moves an organization into an identified domain
        
        Inside the chosen domain may contain a number of acceptable and specific objectives.
      - Hybrid Planning
    - - assumptions, on which they will build
        their action statements
      - Managers gather information by scanning their organization's internal and external environments.
        
        They use this information to make assumptions about the probability of future events.
    - - They develop an action statement that details what needs to be done, when,
        how, and by whom.
        
        the course of action involves determining alternatives based on research, experimentation, and experience
      - determines how an organization will move from its current position to its desired future position
    - - They aim to stimulate and promote better academic or organizational performance
        
        at the same time as promoting the strengthening of the methods and resuming the experience at a certain time.
  - - - The Theory of MBO
        
        Setting realistic and acceptable goals
        
        Joint participation in goal setting, planning and controlling
        
        Setting specific goals
        
        Feedback
        
        MBO has the potential to enhance organizational effectiveness
  - - - Plans have two basic components:
        
        Outcome or goal statements
        represent the end state the targets and outcomes managers hope to attain
        
        Action statements
        reflect the means by which organizations move forward to attain their goals.
        
        Planning is an intellectual activity
        
        When planning, managers have to think about what needs to be done, who is going to do it, how and when is going to do it.
        
        Planners think both retrospectively (about past events) and prospectively (about future opportunities and impending threats).
        
        Planning involves thinking about organizational strengths and weaknesses, as well as making decisions about desired states and ways to achieve them
    - - process: part of the daily duties of a manager and a routine task for all members of organizations
      - Managers should check whether their plans need to be modified and adapted to new conditions or situations.
        
        Why Should Managers Plan?
        
        to offset uncertainty and change
        
        to focus organizational activity on a set of
        objectives
        
        to provide a coordinated, systematic road map for future activities
        
        to increase economic efficiency
        
        to facilitate control by establishing a standard for later activity
      - Plans must be managed flexibly as they learn about new and changing conditions.
      - Planning is a process through which
        organizational activity can be given meaning and direction.
  - - - Two primary characteristics of goals that enhance their motivating potential are goal specificity and goal difficulty.
        
        With regard to goal specificity, a goal that states “improve your performance” or “do your best”
      - The second component of an effective goal is goal difficulty
        
        Goal acceptance is the degree to which people accept a goal as their own.
    - - When organizational members are strongly committed to achieving difficult goals, their involvement in acts of good organizational citizenship is likely to decline.
    - - Job satisfaction (or dissatisfaction) is most likely determined by the level of performance and not by the goals that have been set.