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Gender - Coggle Diagram
Gender
SLT as applied to gender development
Indirect reinforcement
kids witness examples of gender behavior in the world or in media
by observing consequences kids lern what is appropriate behavior in the world around
observation- learn the behavior
vicarious reinforcemtn- whether or not the behaviro is worth repeating
only liklelly to copy those they identify with
supported by bob doll study
kids may see behavior from other genders but inly copy thier one
Mediational processes
info about reinforcemnt is stored as expentancy of future outcomes
cognitive provcess of mediational processes
when oppoutunity arries kids will display behavior they have observed provided the expectation of reward is greater than expectation of punishment
display is imtation
Maintenance through direct reinforcement
if a child is rewarded for gender related behaiors they are more likely to repeat the action in a similar situation in future
direct reinforcement influences usefulness of that behaior
child may see a same sex person behaving in a way and being rewarded,, but then they get punished
e.g a boy sees a panto dame dressing as a girl and getting applause but when he tries it he gets rude remarks
reduces the liklihood of repeating
Direct tuition
children learn through inirect and direct reinforcement
also learn through direct instructions
when kids can speak
parents/peer explicitly tell them what to do
Self direction
Reciprocal determinism
people are not shaped by environmental forces alone but can also direct themselves
means once kids have internalised gender appropirate behaviors their own behairos is no longer reward/punishment based
key element: active role of kids in their observational learning
Ao3
Evidence from studies
Bobo doll study
Perry and bussey
showed film clips to kids 8-9
girls and boys seen slecting an apple or a pear (gender neutral items)
later when given a choice of fruit, they chose the fruit thir gender counterpart had chosen on the film
shows children model gender behaviors they observed in models
kids only modelled behavrio that was not counter to stereotypes tho
therefore there is research support, but the effects are limited by eisitng sterotypes
Direct tuition may be more effective than modelling
research shown that kids don’t always model behavior of a same sex model and direct tuition may be more important
martin et al
found preschool boys played with toys physically labelled as boys toys
even if they saw girls playing with them too
didn’t play with girls toys even when they saw boys playing with them
(didn’t imdatate same sex model)
Teachers and parents however don’t always pracise what they preach and this weakens impact of tuition
findings suggest that direct instruction is more important, and is most effective when coupled with congruent behavior
Psychodynamic explanation of gender development
Oedipus complex
Freud
only boys
3 key components
At age of 3 or 4 young biys become aware of sexuality and desires his mother
boys see thier father as a rival and wishes him dead.
creates anxiety and a fear of cactration. fears repressed
resolved when the boy identifies with his dad.
through identification with the dad theboy internalises the father’s gender identity
identity and identification leads to masculine behavior as they take on attitudes of their fathers
Electra complex
Jung
Oedipus comples but for girls
3 concepts
young girl is initially attrected to her mother but end when the girl discorvers the mother has no pp. girl blames mother for her own lack of pp so gets pp envy
girl’s desires are transferred to her father
copmlex is resolved when the girl converts the pp envy to the wish to have a baby and reduces the anger towards her mum and can take oin gender behaviors
identification with mother is less strong
freud believed there was little reason to want to identify as a woman because women had lower status
Unresolved phallic stage
each psychosexual stage resolved through conflict
successful resolution lead sto healthy outcome
healthy outcome of genital stage is identification with the same sex parent and internalisation of appropriate gender identity
frustration and overindulgence may lead to a fixation at a ceratin stage
fixation on genital stage results in a phallic character
also claimed it could cause amoral behavior and homosexuality
ao3
support from case studies
only support Freud gave was a case study of Little Hans
developed fear of horses, intrptreteded as aresult of repressing desires for his mother
developed love of his mother and wished his dad dead becasue he was scared of castration
associated the touching with words he heard when another dad told his daughter not to touch a horse or she’ll get bitten by it. lead to hans’s fear of horses
final resolution came when hans identified with his father and no longer wished him dead and didn’t fear casatration
Levin
reported on the case of 32 mental patients who were diagnosed with bpd
revealed 22 appeared to be suffering from unresolved electra complexes
12 had regressed to earlier psychosexual stages
supports a link between an unresoled stage pof gender devlopment
link to psych as a science
need cause and effect
not established by his one case study
extende with general psychodynamic Ao3
lacking in any empirical evidence
only used little hans
picked and chose with data he wanted to support
idiothetic
gay/single parent families say otherwise (predictive validity)
apparently kids should have difficulty aqcuiiring gender identity if they live in one parent families or same sex families
patterson
reports from a research reveiw that sexual identities develop in the same way among chldren with lesbian mums than those with straight parents
also have completely normal socila relationships with peers
Suggest that gender development doesn’t depend on oedipus or electra which means tha the thoery lack predictive validity
Gender bias and reinterpretation
Femminists have dismissed the idea of inferior female development due to no penis
beta bias
gender bias
freud even claimed he didn’t understand women
ideas hae been taken literally
Lacan suggested penis envy represtnt the envy of male power in the patriarchy
man people objected to the idea that children are sexually active at such a young age (mentally)
Therefore freud sucks
Therefore freud has been accused of gender bias, his theories may make better sense symoblically than literally
Gender schema theory
Martin and Halverson
proposes 2 key factors that differenciate their theory from Kohlberg
argue that process of acquiring gener releemt info happens before constancy
basic gender labelling is sufficent
Kohlberg claimed this didn’t happen until after gender constancy
suggest how schemas/stereotypes affects later behaviors
Schemas
main concept in GST
concept of a schma
kids learn gender schemas from interarctions with other kids and adults as well as from media
related to cultural norms
Schemas/stereotypes have function of organising and structuring other info
learn what toys/clothes are appropriate etc
theories about what is appropriate
Ao3
Gender schemas without constancy
research supports predictionf from GST that children aquiring infro about gender schemas before they reach gender stability around 3
Martin and little
found children under age of 4 showed no signs of gender stability
despite lack of constancy the children displayed strong gender stereotypes about what boys and girls were permittedd to do
Shows that children have aqcuired info about gender roles before kohlberg suggested in line with GST
Gender identity even earlier
evidence that children can label their gender group earlier than indicated in preious studies
Zosuls et al
recorded samples of kids language and observed them play in order to identify when they first started labelling themselves as boy or girl
concluded that children were using gender labels by 19 months
more recent evidence that children show gender typed preferences even earlier
suggets the age related prediction of GST may be incorrect
Gender schemas organise memory
gender shcemas aqcuire info about ingroup gender steroetypes, we would expect kids to pay greater attention to info consistent with gender schemas and to remember this info better
Martin and halverson
found that children were asked to recall pictures of people, children under 6 recalled more of the gender consistent ones than inconsistent ones
kids appear to pay greatest attention to ingroup rather than outgroup schemes
Bradbard et al
told 4-9 yrolds that certain gender neutral items with boy or girl items
Ps took more interest in toys labbelled in in group
alos one week later they were able to remember more deatils about ingroup objects
shows how gender shcemas are related to memory
Kohlberg's theory
Kohlberg
cognitive developmental approach
draws on piagetian idea that the way we think changes as we get older due to physical brain changes
brain becomes increasingly capable of complicated and more abstract thinking
means changes in gender thinking are due to age related changes in a child’s cognitive capabilities
consequence is tha tdevlopment occurs in stages
children naturally progress through the stages as their thinking matures
useful to recognise progression through stages is a gradual process rather than one of sudden transitions
Stages
Stage 1
Gender Labelling (pre operational)
occures between 2 and 3
children label themselevs as girl or boy
based on outward appearance like haristyle or clothes
will change labels as appearances change
towrads the end they label themselves as well as others
describes as pre-operational thinking
lack internal knowledge
not interally consistent
Stage 2
Gender Stability (conservation)
around 4
kids recognise that gender is consistent over time
concept of gender is stable but not yet consistent
don’t understand it’s also consistent over situations
e.g men are women if they do the cooking
Kids under 7 are still swayed by outward appearance
conservation
in terms of gender they think dress=girl, short hair=boy
lack ability to conserve
McConaghy
found when kids are shown a drawing of a naked male doll with gentailia visable through the dress kds under 5 said the doll was a girl
Stage 3
Gender constancy
around age of 6
realsie gender is constant across situations and time
full gender constancy
when accquired they start to learn about ‘gner appropriate behaviors’
until this age, such info isn’t relevent due to the belief that their gender may change
Ao3
Research evidence
there is research evidence support each stage
Labelling
Tompson 1975
who found that 2 year olds were 76% correct in identifying their sex
3 year olds were 90% correct
show increaing ability to label themselves as predicted
Stability
Slaby and Frey
yound children asked thungs like “will you be a mummy or daddy in the future?”
answeres given by children showed that they did not recognise that these traits were stable over time until they were 3 or 4
Methodological criticisms
Bem criticised the way children’s gender contancy is measured
argued the basci task is nonsenses
when asked to resolve conrtadiction between gender and clothing kids go fro the one most relevant in our society
thrigh hairstyle and clothing
just showing what they’ve learnt about the world and not about gender
Slaby and frey’s methods criticised
martin and halverson
anylysed kids reponses to question bu slaby and frey and judged that they were adopting a pretned mode
demand characteristics
answered what they jhought was the right answer rather than what they really thought
Criticisms weaken validity of research findings
Age differences
Gender constancy appeared as young as five- younger than Kohlberg’s suggestion
slaby and frey
not a direct challenge as ot still supports idea
does suggest that adjustments are neccesary
kids lives have become very different now
exposed to more media now
evidence supports theory, but ages may be off now
Gender differences
found gender differnces in that boys exhibit gender contsnacy before girls
slaby and frey
Huston
relatively easy to get girls to have masculine traits but not boys
generally resist dressing up as girls etc
SLT
role models boys identify with tend to be more powerful
girls role models are less powerful
girls have male role models despite gender differences
boys more likley to be punished for gender innapropriate behaviors
learn gender appropirate behavior more rapidly
Means kohlbergs theory is incomplete because SLT principles are involved
Gender constancy may not be required
research doesn’t support Kohlberg’s claims that children do not begin to acquire info about gender-appropriate behavior until gender constancy
Martin and little
found kids under 4 showed no sign of gender stability or constancy
did display stromng gender stereotypes
Shows that they have aqcuired info about gender roles before Kohlberg suggested in line with prediction of gender schema
Role of chromosome and hormones
Chromosomes
sex chromosomes determine sex
xx or xy
usually a link between chromosomes and external/internal genatalia
during development everyone starts out with essestially female external genatalia
male bits develop at 3 motnsh old
Genetic transmission explains how individuals accquire sex
may also epxlain aspects of someone’s gender
Klinefelter’s syndrome
XXY configuration
born with pp and deelops as male
1/1000 men have condition
tend to be taller than average and have less muscular coordination
look less masculine due to reduced testoterone levels
less facial hair
broader hips
possible breast tissue
often infertile
Turner’s syndrome
X0 configuration
2nd sex chromosome is partly or fully missing
1/2000 females
born with vagina and womb
shorter than average and lack of period due to underdeveloped ovaries
small lower jaw
webbed neck
narrow hips
misshappen internal organs
no 2 cases are the same
Hormones
Testosterone
produced prenatally and affects genitalia development
some XY people are insensitive to it i.e their body tissues don’t respond to the effects of the hormone
in extreme cases they don’t get a pp
usually AFAB (because there is no pp) and raised as girls
affects brain development prenatally and in childhood
e.g XX girls exposed to large doses of T prenatally later showed more “boyish” behaviour
surge of T in puberty is responsible for secondary sexual characteristics
e.g facial hair and deep voice
Oxcytocin
called the “love hormone”
produced in pituitary gland
evokes feelings of contentment and calm
In women
hormone is important for breastfeeding
causes milk to flow
In men and women
related to faster wound healing
dampens fight or flight in times of stress
tend and befriend triggered
ensures that girls protect young and can form an alliance with other girls
doesn't happen in men due to amount of T
Oestrogen
default gender is female
genetic male will develop as a female unless exposed to T
some evidence of other prenatal effects
e.g research found oestrogen may actually lead to a smaller brain
Promotes 2ndary sexual characteristics
e.g boobs and periods
Ao3
Biological determinism
John Money (Money and Ehrhardt, 1972)
may have been wrong in claiming that biological sex was not the main factor in gender development.
argued that sex of rearing was much more important
recommended that intersex individuals e.g David Reimer could be successfully raised as either a boy or a girl
Initially the case study supported his views
ultimately David showed a strong male identity despite being raised as a girl
This outcome further supported by subsequent research
Reiner and Gearhart (2004),
studied 16 genetic males born with almost no pp.
Two were raised as males and remained as males
Remaining 14 were raised as females and eight reassigned themselves as males by the age of 16
Such research suggests that biological factors do have a key role in gender development.
The importance of other factors
other factors are important too
Genetic sex does not match external genitalia in cases of abnormal hormone exposure
hormones do not produce a simple formula for establishing gender.
“The eventual outcome for each individual appears to be a complex and unpredictable combination of genes, hormones, sex of rearing and socialisation.”
The outcome is described as unpredictable because there do not appear to be any simple rules.
E.g Congenital adrenal hyperplasia (CAH)
occurs when XX females have prenatally high levels of male hormones
resulting in varying degrees of external male genitalia.
Research appears to indicate that whatever gender is assigned at birth seems to be accepted by some individuals but not others
Thus gender development must be in part biologically determined (nature) but experience, personal qualities and socialisation (nurture) also have a key role.
The role of culture and social influences
One of the classic cases of abnormal gender development: the Batista family
from the Dominican Republic
Imperato-McGinley et al 1974
Four children were born with external female genitalia and raised as girls.
The large amounts of testosterone produced during puberty caused their male genitalia to appear externally.
These children were genetically XY, but the pp had not appeared because of an inherited gene that caused testosterone insensitivity
they accepted their new male role without difficulty
suggested that the ease of transition from female to male highlights the importance of culture
in a community prepared to accept more fluidity in gender roles it seemed to be relatively easy to move between roles
something which is much more difficult in Western culture
shows how culture can shape gender development in terms of expectations
also illustrates the powerful effects of testosterone (a biological influence)
Real-world applications
A greater understanding of intersex conditions has led to real-world applications
In the past, surgery was the norm for intersex conditions (such as CAH) in order to make the individual “look more normal”
Now, the Intersex Society of North America recommends that babies with such conditions should be assigned a gender, but no surgery should be conducted until the individual can make an informed decision themselves.
implications for treatment.
Genetic testing enables certain individuals, such as those with Turner's syndrome, to be identified early
they can then be given hormone supplements to help them develop secondary sexual characteristics and improve their general health
This shows how psychological research can contribute to improving people's lives
The effect of hormones on brain development
The effects of testosterone on brain development have been confirmed in animal experiments
Quadagno et al. (1977)
found that female monkeys deliberately exposed to testosterone during prenatal development later engaged in more rough-and-tumble play than other
females and were more aggressive.
Can’t generalising from non-human animal studies
because human behaviour is governed (at least to some extent) by expectations and deliberate choice.
Eisenegger et a! (2010)
observed women playing a bargaining game
Those women who believed they had been given a dose of testosterone behaved in a more unfair manner than those who believed they were given a neutral placebo,
demonstrated the effect of expectations
demand characteristics
Suggests that hormones may influence brain development and human
behaviour, but the relationship is not a simple
Sex role sterotypes and androgyny
Sex role sterotypes (gender stereotypes)
concept of roles to do with behavior, related to social norms
Learned from birth
learned from birth
GCSE sociology
Androgyny
Sandra Bem
1970s
concept of psychological androgyny
more healthy to avoid fixed sex role stereotypes
stifling personality can lead to mental disroder
- BSRI
developed by asking 100 American undergraduates which personality traist sthey thought were desirable for men and women
original list of 200 narrowed down to 40
20 masc, 20 fem, and 20 neutral items added
person rates on a 7-point Likert scale from never to always true
added up point and given a score
designed to be able to pick both masc and fem traits
low score would be fem, high would be masc, and andro in the -9-9
4th undifferentiated category added by Spence at al
pointed out that Bem had no distinguished between all of the above (andro) and neither (undiff)
Ao3
Bem test
self report
self esteem
would score higher/ lower
lacks face validity
american
imposed etic
ethnocentric
in 1970s
temporal validity
society changed
may not associate characteristics with feminity/masculinity
less association today - more gender neutral
smith and lloyd parental influence
study where mothers played with a random baby dressed as a boy or girl
if mother thought child was a boy she gave construction and trucks
if girl dolls and dress up
parents have influence of reinforcing sex role stereotypes
historical validity
gender bias
men were out owkring so mother alone
only used mothers
Atypical gender development
Biological explanations
Transsexual gene
Hare et al
looked at DNA of 112 MtF and found they were likely to have a longer version of the androgen receptor gene
effect of this is reduced action of male sex hormone testosterone
may be an effect on gender development in the womb
Brain-sex theory
theory basde on the fact that male and female brains are different and perhaps trans people's brain don’t match their bio sex
BSTc
located in the thalamus
On average the BSTc is twice as large in straight men as in straight women and contains 2x neurons
size of BStc correlates with preferred sex rather than bio
2 dutch studies
found the number of neurons in the BSTc of MtF was similar to that of bio females
nuerons in a FtM was found to be in bio male range too
Phantom limb and cross wiring
Ramachandran
suggets dysphoria is an innate form of phantom limb
demostrated that this occurs because the brain is cross wired
proposed the image of sex organs is innatley hardwired in the brain
cross wiring means a trans person could image they have sex organs they don’t e.g pp
estimated than 2/3rds FtM report the sensation of a phantom penis from childhood onwards
Environmental effects- pesticides
DDT contaisn oestrogen
may mean that males exposed to DDT in the womb are esposed to more female hormones causing a mismatch
found that boys born to mothers exposed to dioxins displayed feminine behaviors
Social explanations
Mental illness
linked to childhood trauma or maladaptive upbringing
Coates et al
produced a case history of a boy who developed GD due to the mother’s depression after an abortion
trauma occurred when he was 3, when gender was being developed
suggests the trauma led to a fantasy to resolved the anxiety felt
Mother-son relationships
Stoller
suggested that GD stems from distorted paretal attitudes
in interviews with GD people Stoller observed that they had close mother relationships
likely lead to greater female identification
father-daughter relationships
Zucker
suggested FtM identify as male because of severe paternal rejection in early childhood
unconsciously think that they may gain acceptance from fathers
Ao3
Criticisms of the brain-sex theory
Critics of the theory challenge whether differences are an effect ora cause of gender dysphoria.
Chung et al. (2002)
noted that the differences in BSTc volume between men and women does not develop until adulthood, whereas most transsexuals report feelings of gender dysphoria from early childhood
(e.g. Lawrence, 2003).
suggests that the difference found in the BSTc could be the effect rather than the cause of transsexualism.
Hulshoff Pol et al. (2006)
found that transgender hormone therapy does influence the size of the BSTc and the individuals in the Dutch studies had been receiving hormone therapy,
might explain why their brain sex was more similar to their gender identity rather thantheir biological sex.
other evidence does continue to support transsexualism as a sexual differentiation disorder.
Rametti et al. (201 1)
studied the brains of FtM transsexuals before they started HRT
FtM individuals had a more similar pattern of white matter to individuals who share their gender identity (males) than those who share their biological sex (females)
These mixed findings suggest that there is inconsistent evidence for the brain-sex theory.
Support for cross-wiring
Ramachandran and McGeoch (2007)
support for their cross-wiring explanation
comparing gender dysphoria patients and non-gender dysphoria individuals who have had surgery to remove sex organs (e.g. for cancer).
Around 60% of non-gender dysphoria men who have to have penile amputation experience a phantom penis
only 30% of gender dysphoria men have such experiences
suggesting that there was no wiring to a 'penis representation in their brain in the first place.
only 10% of FtM patients experience phantom breast sensations after surgery to remove breasts
suggests that some transsexual adults do have differently wired brains.
Support for social explanations
Social explanations also have some support from research of boys with gender dysphoria.
Zucker et al. (1996)
found that 64% of boys with gender dysphoria were also diagnosed with separation anxiety disorder
compared to only 38% of the boys who had gender concerns but whose symptoms were subclinical
points to some kind of disordered attachment to the mother as a factor in gender dysphoria
only explains MtF transsexuals.
Owen-Anderson et al, 2010
found high levels of emotional over-involvement in mothers of boys with gender dysphoria
supporting the view of some family psychopathology underlying the condition.
Coleet al. (1997)
studied 435 individuals experiencing gender dysphoria
reported that the range of psychiatric conditions displayed was no greater than found in a 'normal' population
suggests that gender dysphoria is generally unrelated to trauma or pathological families
More than one explanation needed
Research into MtF transsexuals has identified different types of gender dysphoria
Blanchard (1985)
proposed two distinct groups:
'homosexual transsexuals,
wish to change sex because they are attracted to men
'non-homosexual transsexuals'
wish to change sex because they are autogynephilic (sexually aroused by the thought or image of themselves as a woman).
Furuhashi (2011)
concluded from a study of 27 Japanese male patients with gender dysphoria
that there were two types
longing to be female since childhood (the 'core' group)
discomfort did not appear until adolescence (the'periphery'group).
Such research suggests that there are likely to be different explanations for different types of gender dysphoria
Socially sensitive research
Research on gender dysphoria has potential social consequences for individuals represented by the research
The question is whether they are better off with or without the research.
lf a biological cause is identified, this may help other people to be more accepting of the needs of transsexuals
(it is not their 'fault; it is simply in their biology).
On the other hand, it might harm individuals born with the abnormality
because it might be assumed (wrongly) that transsexualism is biologically inevitable.
The evidence suggets a simple cause-and-effect (determinist) relationship is unlikely.
This shows that both doing research and doing no research may have social consequences for individuals represented by this research.
Cultural and media influences on gender roles
Cultural influences
effect can be seen in the way expectation vary across cultures to another
e.g there is a general belief that women are moe conformist than men
difference varied with culture
Berry et al
report that conformity is highest in tight sedentary societies
correlation of +0.78 between sex differnce and ecocultural index
also include historical changes
women continue to perfomr more domestic duties than men and have less powerful jobs
gender gap is decreasing supporting the role of changin cultural influences
Margaret mead
social groups in Papua New Guinea
provided evidence of cultural role differnces
found the arapesh men AND women to be gentle reponsive and cooperative
Mundugumore men AND women were violent and aggressive seeking power and position
Tchambuli had reverse roles to us
Ao3
Cultural similarities
shows how culture influences gender roles but there is conlficting evidence to say that biology is at least importnant
Eagly and Wood
argues that biologically based physical differnces between men and women allow them to perform certain tasks more efficiently
child bearing a nursing is better suited for boobies so women can’t leave for too long
men are physically stringer so can make them more efficient
in societies where strength is not need for work outside the home gender roles will be more similar and psychological dofferneccs are reduced
Evidence explains gender differnce as a product of biological differnces not just stereotypes
Criticisms of Mead (and cross-cultural research)
flaws in eidence from cross-cultural reearch limit the conculsions that can be drawn
doesn’t detract from the fact that there are differences
should add that Mead subsequently changed her conclusion and deciede there were more similarities tbetween men and women than differences
e.g observer sfrom one culture may record behaviors differntly from indigenous observers
Freeman
his version also criticised for being innaccurate
worked with native samoans who said they’d created a false picture of their behaior
suggests data is not valid
indegenous people may tell researchers what they want to hear
evidence about cultural differnces may be flawed, which challenged the conclusions
Media influences
Role models in the media
generally portray men as independent aand capable, and women as the opposite
Men alao more likley to be shown exercising control over events and women the damsel in distress
Conley and ramsey
more recent analysis looked at gender portrayals in ads
found women were shown as more flawless and passive
those who have higher exposure to these differential gender representations tend to display more stereotypic gender role conceptions than light viewers
McGhee and Frueh
conducted a longitudinal study over 15 months
found that kids aged 6-12 who watched >25 hours a week held more stereotype perceptions that <10 hours
Vicarious reinforcement
media models stereotypical behavior and gie outcomes of those behaviors
seeing similar others succeed raises a person’s beleif in thier own capabilities (self-effacy)
failure of similar other produces self doubt
Counter-stereotypes
means of changing such stereotypes with counter stereotyping
Pingree
found that stereotyping was reduced when kids were shown commercials with women in non-traditional roles
led to pressure on programme makers to try and use this fact
Ao3
Demonstrating media influence
eidence for the influence of TV of sterotypes from the NOtel study
took advantage of the rare case
shows that exposure to the media can have strong effects on gender attitudes
RM
natural study
collected with questionnaires
demand characteristics
Confounding variable
they were in a remotes village
they could have different attitudes because of that
Media effects may be insignificant
Charlton et al
found no changes in aggressive behavior in a community recently introduced to TV
concluded this was because of pre-existing community alues that reduced the effect of exposure to the media
did concern aggression, but can give an idea about gender too
media only used to reinforce the ideas and not change them
Tannis and Williams
1970s (temporal validity)
Valley in Canada surrounded by high mountains, not allowing TV signals
Notel= No TV community
gave an opportunity to study the effects of exposure to TV
Behavaior and attitudes assed
included surveys about gender sterotypes
e.g what characteristics are for boys or girls
Analysis made 2 years before and after introduction of TV
found tha their views were significantly more sex-typed
2 further towns
Unitel= only one Canadian channel
Multitel= number of american channels too
Found that Notel and Unitle had weaker stereotypes than Multitel
especially true for girls