Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
U10 - Coggle Diagram
U10
1. MORPHOLOGY
Morphology
The branch of linguistics that deals with the study of the internal structure & form of words. Complex words are formed by combining smaller units of meaning called morphemes. It deals with the rules/patterns that govern how morphemes can be combined to create words, & how these words can be modified to create new forms or meanings. Two types:
Inflectional ~
We can create new word forms without changing the grammatical class. It involves adding affixes to a word to indicate grammatical features (tense, aspect, person, number, gender, case) without changing the basic meaning of the word. It does not create new words or change their word class.
-
-
Derivational ~
-
WFP that affects the meaning of the stem. Produces a different lexical item from the source which is not always predictable from the meanings of the items. It involves adding affixes to a word to create a new word or to change its grammatical class, & often involves a change in meaning
joyful, happiness, suggestion
Morpheme
The smallest meaningful unit of grammatical/word analysis (has a distinctive meaning). It can be either a part of a word or a whole word that cannot be further divided into smaller meaningful units. By definition, if you add a morpheme, or take one away from an utterance, you alter the meaning of that utterance
Grammatical / Bound ~
The bits of meaning that serve a grammatical function & typically carry little or no meaning on their own. They can only occur in a word-form in conjunction with at least one other morpheme (bound morpheme)
-
-
-
Lexical / Free ~
The essential morpheme in a word, which carries the lexical meaning (content), is known as the lexeme. They can stand alone as words since they carry the main part of the meaning (free morpheme)
-
-
Realization of meaning
Morphs
The actual realization of morphemes in speech or writing. One morph can have several allomorphs. A morpheme is the description of what a morph is or does to a word
Root / Stem
The morph that realizes the essential meaning. The part of the word remaining after every affix has been removed
-
-
Allomorphs
Different realizations of the same morpheme (past tense as /t/, /d/ or /id/, plural as -s or -es)
Word formation processes
A set of grammatical rules which are used in order to create new English words by modifying open-class words. They are the most active and common structures used in order to create new words. Once a base has undergone a rule of WF, the derived word itself may become the base for another derivation
Open-class words
classes to which new members can be added (Nouns, Verbs, Adjectives & Adverbs)
Closed-class words
those whose members are relatively fixed in number (Determiners, Pronouns, Prepositions, Conjunctions)
-
Major processes
Affixation
a WFP which adds an affix to the base, with or without changing the word class
Prefixes & Suffixes
- Prefixes: usually class-maintaining (inflectional)
- Suffixes: usually class-changing (derivational)
-
-
Conversion
Changing the grammatical function of a word without changing its form, by using a word in a different syntactic context or with a different meaning
-
2. PREFIXATION
Prefixes
Groups
of Time & Order
- FORE: "before"
- PRE - POST: "before-after"
- EX: "former"
- RE: "again"
- foreword, foreground, foreplay, forehead, forecast
- pre-war, preheat, preposition, precaution - post-war, post-mortem, postpone
- ex-husband, ex-president, ex-criminal
- reread, reuse, replay, renew, re-elect
-
of Attitude
- CO: "accompanying" (Ns, Adjs, Vbs)
- COUNTER: "in opposition, against" (Ns, Vbs)
- ANTI - PRO: "against - for" (Ns, Adjs)
- cooperate, coworker, coexist, coordinate
- counterattack, counter-argument, counterproductive
- anti-social, anti-war, pro-democracy, pro-life
-
Number
- UNI / MONO: "one"
- BI / DI: "two"
- TRI: "three"
- MULTI / POLY: "many"
- unilateral, unidirectional, uniform / monopoly, monotonous, monosyllabic
- bilingual, bidirectional / dichotomy, dilemma
- trimester, triangle, trident, trilogy
- multicultural, multilingual, multitask / polygamy, polyglot, polysemy
of Degree/size
- ARCH: "Supreme, highest" (Ns)
- SUPER: "Better, more than" (Ns, Adjs)
- OUT: "To do something better" (Vbs)
- SUR - SUB: "above-below" (Ns-Adjs)
- OVER - UNDER: (Adjs, Vbs)
- HYPER / ULTRA: "Extremely," (Adjs)
- MINI / MICRO - MACRO: "Small-large" (Ns)
- arch-enemy, archetype archduke
- supernatural, superhuman, superpower
- outrun, outpace, outsmart
- surpass, surname, surface / substandard, subordinate, subzero
- overestimate, overreact, overcook, / underestimate, undervalue, undercook
- hyperactive, hyperrealistic, hypermarket / ultraviolet, ultrasonic, ultra-modern
- mini-skirt, mini-bar, mini-golf / microscope, microchip - macro nutrients, macroeconomics
-
Conversion
- BE: (Vbs)
- EN: (Vbs)
- A: (Adjs)
- bewitch, befriend, belittle
- endanger, enlarge, enhance
- afloat, alive, asleep, awake
-
Reversative
- unhorse, unpack, unwind, unfold
- deforestation, deconstruct, decompose
- disconnect, dislocate, disinherit
"to reverse action, to undo"
-
Others
- AUTO: "self"
- NEO: "now, revived"
- PAN: "world-wide"
- PROTO: "first, original"
- SEMI: "half"
- VICE: "delegate"
- autobiography, auto-immune, autonomy, automatic
- neoclassic, neo-liberal, neo-nazi, neologism
- pandemic, pan-American, pan-European
- prototype, protolanguage, protoscience
- semicircle, semi-final, semi-automatic
- vice-president, vice-principal, vice-chairman
Negative
- UN: (the most common prefix)
- NON:
- IN / IL / IM / IR:
- DIS:
- A / AN: "lacking, absence of a quality"
- unexpected, uncertain, unhappy
- non-stop, non-profit, non-fiction
- insane, illegal, imperfect, irregular
- dissimilar, disagree, disrespect
- amoral, atypical / anormal, anarchy
-
-
Locative
- SUPER: "over" (Ns)
- SUB: "under" (Ns, Adjs, Vbs)
- INTER: "between" (Adjs, Ns, Vbs)
- TRANS: "across" (Adjs, Vbs)
- superstructure, superordinate, supervise, supermarket
- subway, submarine, subterranean, sub-zero
- international, intermediate, interaction,
- transatlantic, translate, transcription
Pejorative
- MIS: (Vbs)
- MAL:
- PSEUDO: "false, imitation" (Adjs)
- misinform, misconduct, misunderstand
- malfunction, malnourished, malware
- pseudo-intellectual, pseudo-science
-
-
- Particles that can be added before full words but cannot occur in isolation (bound morphemes)
- Do not generally alter word class of the base (class maintaining)
- Do not normally alter the stress pattern of the word
- All of them have some stress (secondary). However, the main stress of the word falls on the base
- Can be grouped according to their meaning
4. COMPOUNDING
Compound words
A combination of two words that functions as a unit (simple word), consisting of at least 2 bases/roots which may also be used as separate words.
- Can be written as (1) two independent words, (2) two hyphenated words, & (3) one word (washing machine, tax-free, toothache)
- Usually have main stress on the 1st element and secondary stress on the 2nd (‘black,bird)
- The meaning of a compound cannot always be deduced from the separate meaning of its individual elements (hotdog)
Classification
Verb ~
Back-formation
- Object + Verb:
- Adv + Verb:
- brain-wash
- baby-sit, sleep-walk
-
- overcome, underestimate, outrun
Adjective ~
Verb & Object
- beathtaking, man-eating, self-governing
Verb & Adverbial
- Adv + -ing Part:
- Adv + -ed Part:
- Adv/Adj + -ing Part:
- Adv/Adj + -ed Part:
- mouth-watering
- home-made, self-employed
- hard-working, good-looking, everlasting
- widespread, new-laid
Verbless
- Noun + Adj: (+productive)
- Other Ns + Adj:
- Adj1 + Adj2:
- taxfree, waterproof, homesick
- snow-white, bottle-green
- socio-economic, Anglo-American, morphosyntactic
Noun ~
Verb & Subject
- Subject + deverbal N: (+productive)
- Verb + Subject:
- Verb -ing + Subject:
- sunrise, headache, rainfall
- playboy
- washing machine, fishing rod
Verb & Object
- Object + deverbal N:
- Verb + Obj:
- Verb ing + Obj:
- Obj + Verb -ing: (+productive)
- Obj + N -er: (+productive)
- haircut, blood test, birth control
- pushbutton (?:) toothbrush,hairbrush
- drinking water, reading materials, chewing gum
- story-telling, horse-riding, book-keeping, house-cleaning
- songwriter, book keeper, firefighter, caretaker/giver
Verb & Adverbial
- Verb -ing + Adv: (+productive)
- Adv + Vb -ing (~productive)
- Adv + N -er: (~productive)
- Adv + deverbal N: (~productive)
- Verb + Adv:
- swimming-pool, sleeping-bag, dining-room, shopping-centre
- sleepwalking, daydreaming, overthinking
- baby-sitter, fast-learner, quick-thinker, hard-worker
- homework, breakdown, comeback, breakthrough
- dance-hall, (?:) runway, drive-in, sleep-walk
Verbless
Subject & Object
- N1 operates N2:
- N2 produces N1:
- N1 produces N2:
- N1 has N2:
- windmill
- toy factory
- gas light
- arrowhead
-
Subject & Complement
- N2 is N1:
- N2 is like N1: (+productive)
- N2 consists of N1:
- N2 is for N1:
- Adj + Noun:
- woman writer, apple tree
- goldfish
- apple pies, rice pudding
- hand-towel, coffee time
- darkroom, blackboard
-
-
Repetition ~
- Onomatopoeia: tick-tock, ding-dong, knock-knock (to imitate sounds)
- Alternating movements: ping-pong, flip-flop, chit-chat, zigzag
- Vacillation (hesitation): wishy-washy, in-and-out, back-and-forth
- Intensification: tip-top, super-duper, mega-cool, ultra-rich
-
3. SUFFIXATION
Suffixes
-
- Usually class-changing elements
- Divided into derivational (with semantic value) & inflectional (with grammatical value)
- Do not have meaning of their own & only serve to modify the meaning or category of the main element
- Native suffixes combine only with a native base & there is no change of stress
- Foreign suffixes can combine with a foreign base as well
- Semi-suffixes (half way between a full word and a
suffix, freeforms): CRAFT, -PROOF, -LIKE, -MAN, -WISE, etc.
Groups
Noun ~
Denominal
Abstract (8)
- AGE: "measure of, collection of"
- DOM: "pejorative overtones"
- ERY: "condition associated with/location"
- FUL: "the amount of the Nn"
- HOOD: "Status"
- ISM: "doctrine of"
- OCRACY: "system of government"
- SHIP: "status condition"
- baggage, storage, package, footage
- kingdom, martyrdom, Christendom
- slavery / nursery, bakery, butchery, jewellery
- mouthful, spoonful, handful, pocketful
- brotherhood, manhood, motherhood
- capitalism, socialism, feminism,
- democracy, theocracy, monarchy, autocracy
- friendship, leadership, dictatorship, relationship
Concrete (7)
- EER: "skilled in"
- ESS: "female"
- ETTE: "small, compact"
- LET: "small"
- LING: "minor, offspring of"
- STER: "involved in"
- ER: "1) of a profession, 2) maker of, 3) inhabitant"
- engineer, volunteer, pioneer
- waitress, duchess, actress, goddess
- cigarette, palette, silhouette
- booklet, leaflet, bracelet
- duckling
- gangster, trickster
- banker, hatter, Londoner
-
Deverbal
Abstract (6)
- ING: "activity/state"
- MENT: "result of"
- ANT: "agentive & instrumental"
- ATION: "process/state of"
- AL: "result/action of"
- AGE: "action of"
- building, opening, cleaning, teaching
- amazement, arrangement, development, agreement
- inhabitant, assistant, accountant, applicant
- exploration, adaptation, application, cooperation
- trial, refusal, arrival, denial, withdrawal
- drainage, coverage, usage, advantage
Concrete (2)
- ER / OR: "1) personal, 2) non-personal"
- EE: "passive"
- singer, writer, actor, editor / computer, thriller
- employee, trainee, interviewee, referee, addressee
Deadjetival (6)
- NESS:
- ITY:
- ITE: "member of"
- IAN: "1) relating to, 2) citizen of"
- ESE: "member of"
- IST: "skilled in"
- happiness, sadness, darkness, kindness
- sanity, equality, flexibility, simplicity
- socialite, urbanite, parasite, hypocrite
- comedian, electrician, magician / Indian, Australian, Canadian
- Chinese, Portuguese, Japanese
- violinist, guitarist, pianist, artist, scientist
-
& denominal (except -ness, -ity)
-
Verb ~ (4)
- IFY / FY:
- IZE / ISE:
- ATE:
- EN:
- simplify, objectify, clarify, qualify, justify
- popularize, standardize, organize, customize
- activate, celebrate, collaborate, evaluate
- harden, strengthen, quicken, lengthen
-
Adjective ~
Denominal (7+4)
- FUL: "full of"
- LESS: "without"
- LY: "having the quality of"
- LIKE: "having the quality of"
- Y: "like"
- ISH: "1) rather like, 2) citizen of"
- IAN: "in the tradition of"
Borrowed & neo-classical in origin:
- AL:
- IC:
- ESQUE:
- OUS:
- beautiful, helpful, forgetful
- homeless, childless, moneyless
- cowardly, deadly, earthly, daily
- ladylike, chidlike, godlike
- hairy, creamy, milky
- foolish, reddish / Swedish, Turkish
- Christian, Darwinian vegetarian
- natural, criminal, musical, cultural
- heroic, athletic, Arabic, historic
- picturesque, burlesque, grotesque
- courageous, virtuous, ambitious
Deverbal (2)
- readable, manageable, predictable
- attractive, active, creative, talkative
Adverb ~ (3)
- LY: "in a ... manner"
- WARDS: "direction & manner"
- WISE: "as far as ... is concerned"
- happily, quickly
- backwards, upwards
- clockwise, weatherwise
Grouped by the class of the word they form (noun) & by the class of the base they are added to (denominal)