Final Connections
Chapter One- Biology: Exploring Life
Biology: The Scientific Study of Life (1.1–1.3)
Life can be defined by a group of properties common to all living organisms and is characterized by both a huge diversity of organisms and a hierarchy of organization.
The Process of Science (1.4–1.8)
Science is based on verifiable evidence. In studying nature, scientists make observations, form hypotheses, and test predictions.
Five Unifying Themes in Biology (1.9–1.14)
Themes that run through all of biology are evolution, information, structure and function, energy and matter, and interactions.
Chapter Two- The Chemical Basis of Life
Elements, Atoms, and Compounds (2.1–2.4)
Living organisms are made of atoms of certain elements, mostly combined into compounds
Chemical Bonds (2.5–2.9)
The structure of an atom determines what types of bonds it can form with other atoms.
Water’s Life-Supporting Properties (2.10–2.16)
The unique properties of water derive from the polarity and hydrogen bonding of water molecules.
Chapter Three- The Molecules of Cells
Introduction to Organic Compounds (3.1–3.3)
Carbon-containing compounds are the chemical building blocks of life.
Carbohydrates (3.4–3.7)
Carbohydrates serve as a cell’s fuel and building material.
Lipids (3.8–3.11)
Lipids are hydrophobic molecules with diverse functions.
Proteins (3.12–3.14)
Proteins are essential to the structures and functions of life.
Nucleic Acids (3.15–3.16)
Nucleic acids store, transmit, and help express hereditary information.
Chapter Four- A Tour of the Cell
Introduction to the Cell (4.1–4.4)
Microscopes reveal the structures of cells—the fundamental units of life.
The Nucleus and Ribosomes (4.5–4.6)
The Endomembrane System (4.7–4.12)
Energy-Converting Organelles (4.13–4.15)
The Cytoskeleton and Cell Surfaces (4.16–4.22)
The cytoskeleton and extracellular components provide support, motility, and functional connections.
Mitochondria in all eukaryotic cells and chloroplasts in plant cells function in energy processing.
The endomembrane system participates in the manufacture, distribution, and breakdown of materials.
A cell’s genetic instructions are housed in the nucleus and carried out by ribosomes.
Prokaryotic cells were the first to evolve and were Earth’s sole inhabitants for more than 1.5 billion years. Evidence indicates that eukaryotic cells evolved from some of these cells about 1.8 billion years ago. This connects to Big Idea 3 in Chapter one as it models evolution of living things
Chapter Five- The Working Cell
Membrane Structure and Function (5.1–5.9)
A cell membrane’s structure enables its many functions, such as regulating traffic across the membrane.
Energy and the Cell (5.10–5.12)
A cell’s metabolic reactions transform energy, using ATP to drive cellular work.
How Enzymes Function (5.13–5.16)
Enzymes speed up a cell’s chemical reactions and provide precise control of metabolism.
Chapter Six- How Cells Harvest Chemical Energy
Phospholipids (key ingredients of biological membranes) were among the first organic molecules that formed from chemical reactions on early Earth. This connects to both the core theme of biology from CHAPTER ONE, and the idea of chemical reactions from the CHAPTER TWO as well
To further explain the chapter 2 connection, a chemical reaction is a process that rearranges the molecular/ionic structure of a substance. The chemical reactions that happened in early earth provided us with a majority of the chemicals in our bodies today, in addition to being one step in the process of making earth habitable
A cell uses the process of exocytosis to export bulky materials such as proteins or polysaccharides. They use vesicles and fuse them with the plasma membrane to do this, which connects to chapter four as this is when we learned about vesicles (and that they come from the golgi apparatus)
Cellular Respiration: Aerobic Harvesting of Energy (6.1–6.5)
Cellular respiration oxidizes fuel molecules and generates ATP for cellular work.
Stages of Cellular Respiration (6.6–6.13)
The main stages of cellular respiration are glycolysis, pyruvate oxidation and the citric acid cycle, and oxidative phosphorylation.
Fermentation: Anaerobic Harvesting of Energy (6.14–6.15)
Fermentation regenerates NAD+, allowing glycolysis and ATP production to continue without oxygen.
Connections Between Metabolic Pathways (6.16–6.17)
The breakdown pathways of cellular respiration intersect with biosynthetic pathways
Free glucose molecules are not common in the human diet. Instead, we obtain most of our calories as carbohydrates (such as sucrose and other disaccharide sugars and starch, a polysaccharide), fats, and proteins. This connects to chapter 3 when we discussed biological molecules and how polysaccharides function as storage molecules or as structural compounds (3.7)
Ancient prokaryotes are thought to have used glycolysis to make ATP long before oxygen was present in Earth’s atmosphere, further supporting the theory that prokaryotes were the first organisms on earth
Chapter Seven: Photosynthesis: Using Light to Make Food
An Introduction to Photosynthesis (7.1–7.5)
Plants and other photoautotrophs use the energy of sunlight to convert CO2 and H2O to sugar and O2.
Plants and other photoautotrophs use the energy of sunlight to convert CO2 and H2O to sugar and O2 (7.6-7.9)
In the thylakoids of a chloroplast, the light reactions generate ATP and NADPH.
The Calvin Cycle: Reducing CO2 to Sugar (7.10–7.11)
The Calvin cycle, which takes place in the stroma of the chloroplast, uses ATP and NADPH to reduce CO2 to sugar.
The Global Significance of Photosynthesis (7.12–7.14)
Photosynthesis provides the energy and building material for ecosystems. It also affects atmospheric CO2 levels and global climate.
In the 1930s, the preceding idea of photosynthesis was challenged by C. B. van Niel who hypothesized that in plant photosynthesis, it is H2O that is split, with the hydrogen becoming incorporated into sugar and the O2 released as gas. He worked with photosynthesizing bacteria test his hypothesis, and 20 years later it was confirmed. This relates to the process of science we learned about in chapter one as he used those processes to run his experiments
Chapter Eight- The Cellular Basis of Reproduction and Inheritance
Cell Division and Reproduction (8.1–8.2)
Cell division is a key step in many of life’s important processes.
The Eukaryotic Cell Cycle and Mitosis (8.3–8.10)
Cells produce genetic duplicates through an ordered, tightly controlled process.
Meiosis and Crossing Over (8.11–8.17)
The process of meiosis produces genetically varied haploid gametes from diploid cells.
Alterations of Chromosome Number and Structure (8.18–8.23)
Errors in cell division can produce organisms with abnormal numbers of chromosomes.
Chapter Nine- Patterns of Inheritance
Mendel’s Laws (9.1–9.10)
Some inheritance patterns are more complex than the ones described by Mendel
The Chromosomal Basis of Inheritance (9.16–9.19)
Hereditary rules can be understood by following the behavior of chromosomes.
Sex Chromosomes and Sex-Linked Genes (9.20–9.23)
Genes found on sex chromosomes display unique patterns of inheritance.
Chapter Ten- Molecular Biology of the Gene
The Structure of the Genetic Material (10.1–10.3)
A series of experiments established DNA as the molecule of heredity.
DNA Replication (10.4–10.5)
Each DNA strand can serve as a template for another.
The Flow of Genetic Information from DNA to RNA to Protein (10.6–10.16)
Genotype controls phenotype through the production of proteins.
The Genetics of Viruses and Bacteria (10.17–10.23)
Viruses and bacteria are useful model systems for the study of nucleic acids.
The major component of cell membranes. Phospholipids are structurally similar to fats, except that they contain only two fatty acids attached to glycerol instead of three. In chapter four, we learned about how eukaryotic cells contain many things that prokaryotic cells don't, such as a nucleus and other organelles made of phospholipids
A ribosome holds mRNA and tRNAs together and connects amino acids from the tRNAs to the growing polypeptide chain which connects to chapter four when we learned about how ribosomes make proteins for use in the cell and for export
The chromosome theory of inheritance says the genes occupy specific loci on chromosomes, and its the chromosomes that undergo segregation/ indep. assortment during meiosis and we learned all about meiosis in chapter eight
Genes are also influenced by environmental factors, such as nutrition and exercise, which connects to chapter 10.19 when we learned about emerging viruses and how the can spread randomly and from/between organisms in the environment
Chapter Eleven- How Genes Are Controlled
Control of Gene Expression (11.1–11.11)
Cells can turn genes on and off through a variety of mechanisms.
Cloning of Plants and Animals (11.12–11.14)
Cloning demonstrates that cells retain their full genetic potential.
The Genetic Basis of Cancer (11.15–11.18)
Changes in genes that control gene expression can lead to out-of-control cell growth.
Chapter Twelve- DNA Technology and Genomics
Gene Cloning and Editing (12.1–12.5)
A variety of laboratory techniques can be used to copy, combine, and edit DNA molecules.
Genetically Modified Organisms (12.6–12.10)
Transgenic cells, plants, and animals are used in agriculture and medicine.
DNA Profiling (12.11–12.15)
Genetic markers can be used to definitively match a DNA sample to an individual.
Genetically Modified Organisms (12.16–12.21)
The study of biological sequence information provides valuable data.
The joining of yeast cells is like "sex" because the process results in the creation of a diploid cell that is a genetic blend of two parental haploid cells. This connects to chapter 8 when we learned about haploid and diploid cells
Scientists and the public need to weigh the possible benefits of GMOs versus the risks on a case-by-case basis. This connects to CHAPTER ONE and how the public and scientific experiments are entwined
A variety of DNA technologies can be used to treat, identify, and prevent disease and the technology used is similar to the technology we learned about in chapter 9 that helps people look into their genetic legacy
Treating diseases: Two products made using recombinant cells are human insulin and human growth hormone. Genetic engineering has allowed scientists to make lab-grown insulin and growth hormone. This human growth hormone has treated HIV infected individuals and has been found to reverse thymic involution, increase total and naïve CD4 T cell counts and reduce the expression of activation and apoptosis markers. (CHAPTER TEN CONNECTION)
Alternative RNA splicing is when multiple mRNA molecules are produced from the same primary transcript, depending on which RNA segments are treated as exons and which as introns. This connects to CHAPTER NINE when we learned about crossing over and how that also creates diversity in inheritance
Amino acids are made of an amino group and a carboxyl group covalently bonded together, and they are the monomers of proteins and there are 20 total which connects to CHAPTER 2.6 when we learned about how covalent Bonds Join Atoms into Molecules Through Electron Sharing
ATP is the main energy source for cells. It releases energy when phosphate bonds are hydrolyzed. This connections to CHAPTER SEVEN when we learned about how photons are absorbed by photosystem one, they excite and are passed down the ETC to photosystem II, producing ATP on the way. Then, the excited electrons are passed into a bucket to make NADPH by reducing NADP+
Photophosphorylation: the production of ATP by chemiosmosis during light reactions of photosynthesis which connects to the idea that each molecule of glucose yields many molecules of ATP that we learned about in CHAPTER SIX
8.7 The rate of cell division is affected by environmental factors which connects to CHAPTER SEVEN when we learned about the greenhouse effect/ the warming of the Earth due to the atmospheric accumulation of CO2 and other gases, as this alteration in the environment will affect cell division
gene regulation the turning on/off of genes within a cell in response to environmental stimuli or other factors which connect to CHAPTER ONE when we learned about how living things respond to the environment
A chemical reaction is the making an breaking of chemical bonds, leading to changes in composition of matter which connects to CHAPTER THREE when we learned about water and how adding water breaks peptide bonds