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english language - Coggle Diagram
english language
grammar including morphology
morphology: the structure/form of a word
morpheme: the smallest viable grammatical unit
free morpheme:
can stand alone with a specific meaning
e.g: eat, date, weak
bound morpheme:
morphemes that can only be attached to another part of a word (cannot stand alone)
e.g: pre, dis, in, un, ful, able, ment, ly, ise
word structure
simple words (lexemes):
words made up of one free morpheme
e.g: the, run, on, well
compound words:
words made up of two free morphemes
e.g: keyboard, greenhouse, smartphone, motorhome
affix:
a grammatical element combined with a word
prefixes & suffixes are types of affix
prefix:
a word/letter/number of places before another
create new words in the same class
suffix:
a morpheme added at the end of a word to form a derivative
can, not always, change a word’s class and meaning
affixation
derivational affixation:
the adding of a prefix/suffix to a word to change a word’s meaning
e.g: reliable to unreliable
inflectional affixation:
the adding of a suffix to change a word’s class/tense/quantity
e.g: travel to travelled, clear to clearly, handful to handfuls
base:
the form of a word to which prefixes and suffixes can be added to create new words
word class
lexical word (open class):
classes of words that are open to change
new words are formed while old ones drop out of use
function word (closed class):
structural words
there are no additions/deletions from them
word formation
coinage/neologism:
an entirely new word is created to suit a particular purpose
usually used when new products/services are created or new discoveries are made
often the word will begin as a noun and over time verbs, adjectives and adverbs will be created from them
e.g: selfie
acronym:
when a group of initials are treated as a stand alone word, despite each letter standing for another word
e.g: NASA – National Aeronautics and Space Administration
compounding:
combining two separate lexemes to produce a new lexeme
e.g: footpath, toothpaste, shedload
blending:
the taking of two words and forming them in to a single word using the first and last half of each
e.g: romantic comedy becomes 'romcom'
clipping:
the shortening of an existing word
e.g: advertisement becomes ‘ad’
backformation:
the removal of affixes to create new words
often this will involves changing word class
e.g: babysitter becomes babysit
grammar:
the rules you apply to sentences so that they are structured correctly and are more understandable
noun phrases:
a group of words which has a head noun
e.g: the young boy
pre-modifiers:
adjectives are often used within a noun phrase to add detail to the head noun
e.g: the young boy
text structure
anaphoric referencing:
when a word (usually a pronoun) refers to something previously mentioned within a text
cataphoric referencing:
when a word (usually a pronoun) refers to something not yet mentioned within a text
sentences
phrase:
a group of words but doesn’t contain a subject and a verb
can't be their own sentences
e.g: several unknown vehicles
clause:
a group of words containing a subject and a verb
e.g: Eric blamed his mother
sentence: can exist as a single clause, but a single phrase can’t make up a sentence
active and passive voice
active voice sentence:
the subject carrying out the action is foregrounded
passive voice sentence:
the subject is having the action carried out on to them
e.g:
The cat sat on the mat.
subject=cat
verb=sat
object=mat
the cat is foregrounded
The mat was sat on by the cat.
subject=mat
verb=sat
object=cat
here the subjects have changed so that the mat is foregrounded
elliptical construction:
a sentence from which one or more words are omitted for the sake of conciseness
e.g: I went to the cinema, but my brother did not
'go to the cinema' has been omitted from the sentence
sentence moods/forms:
one could be dressed up as another
declarative/indicative:
to give a statement/declaration of fact/opinion
gives certainty
interrogative:
question
one person could be confused/desparate
imperative:
a clear instruction/order
could show an imbalance of power
exclamative:
a statement punctuated with an exclamation mark
gives more emotion
indicates change in mood/urgency
types of phrase
noun phrase:
a group of words that have a noun/pronoun
used to modify the noun
the head noun is surrounded by some form of description
e.g: The beautiful, delicate purse was placed on top of the ledge.
'purse'=head noun
verb phrase:
words around a verb
can be used just like a verb
consists of a main verb and an auxiliary verb
e.g: The beautiful, delicate purse was placed on top of the ledge.
'was placed'=more than one word
adjectival phrase:
a group of words consisting of an adjective
can be used to complement it
provides more information about the noun/pronoun in a sentence
e.g: A purse made of delicate silk was place on the ledge.
adverbial phrase:
a group of words that includes an adverb and other modifiers (provides additional information)
e.g: The beautiful, delicate purse was placed with surprising force on the ledge.
'with surprising force'=how something was done
prepositional phrase:
consists of a preposition and an object
e.g: The beautiful, delicate purse was placed on the ledge.
'on the ledge'=has to have an object
sentence structure
minor sentence:
sentence without a subject/verb
sometimes a sentence requires additional phrases/clauses after the object to make complete sense
the additional word/words by which the sentence is made complete are called the complement
complement:
may be in seven different forms
noun/adjective/preposition/infinitive verb/adverb/noun clause
compound sentences:
a sentence consisting of two independent clauses joined with a conjunction and a comma
e.g: I read the newspaper, but I didn’t agree with the article.
Jim was trying to lose weight, yet he ate a bar of chocolate every evening.
complex sentences:
has a main clause and a subordinate clause
e.g: Although he was scared, he walked on.
He walked on, although he was scared.
conjunctions
FANBOYS:
for
and
nor
but
or
yes
so
pragmatics:
the contextual aspects of language use
PAFT
purpose
what job is the writer trying to do?
argue
inform
analyse
imagine
persuade
explain
review
explore
advise
describe
comment
entertain
audience
the reader
children
teenagers
parents
pensioners
workers
experts
fans
men
women
adults
age
gender
job
interests
education
hobbies
lifestyle
class
politics
form
type of writing
article
story
letter
email
speech
essay
report
advert
leaflet
web page
tone
what is the mood of the writing?
enthusiastic
passionate
hopeful
optimistic
sad
humourous
annoyed
angry
frustrated
doubtful
pessimistic
sarcastic
ironic
questioning
suspicious
subjective
neutral
cynical
knowledgeable
objective
communication functions
phatic ('small talk'):
insignificant/unimporant
referential:
the stating of information
transactional:
requires action from the recipient
expressive:
sharing of a personal opinion/view
interactional:
maintaining/building a relationship
relationship between sender and recipient
sender:
individual/group
motivation
intention
age
gender
status
recipient:
age
gender
interests
geographical location
social status
background
priorities
job status
relationship:
close/distant
frequently/infrequently
method
equal/unequal power
planned/spontaneous
function
sincere/ambiguous
formality
register
high register:
refers to formal language
suggests a serious topic/purpose
low register:
refers to informal language
suggests a more relaxed/casual topic/purpose
elements of context
how it helps the writer
how it effects the reader
code switching:
when a speaker/writer alternates between two or more varieties of English within a singular communication
this includes:
lexical choices
grammatical choices
syntax choices
formality
why does it happen:
topic
audience
environment
status/power
positives/negatives
positives:
helps avoid inappropriate communications between different people
e.g: a relaxed and friendly tone is more appropriate to a friend than a royal
helps avoid conflict
negatives:
might reinforce stereotypes and lack of diversity
examples:
parent/close relative: 'Lost my job :)'
close friend: 'Guess whose jobless! Xx'
work groupchat: 'Hi guys! Thanks for an amazing two years! Accidentally fell asleep under the coats.'
borrowing:
using word as part of your normal language (stealing words)
writing
narratives
first person narrative
can raise the emotional stakes
can be conversational
involves subjectivity
first person storyteller can be an unreliable narrator
third person narrative
can allow for omniscience (a wider view)
provides an insight into multiple characters
allows for objectivity
can more easily jump around in time
narrator:
the person telling the story
characterisation techniques
type:
speech
thoughts
effect on others
actions
looks
focus on establishing either:
character
setting/mood
setting:
where something happens (place/location)
establishing character:
repeated action or habit
self portrait
appearance
juxtaposition
genre:
a category of art or literature
examples
fantasy
character conventions
heroes
witches
wizards
magical creatures
robots
superheroes
talking creatures
plot conventions
distant planets and galaxies
time travel
unreal worlds
magic castles
horror
character conventions
vampires
ghosts
talking creatures
young teenagers
plot conventions
haunted houses
deserted mansions
graveyards
evil
fear
paranoia
coming of age
character conventions
young teenagers
bullies
underdog
plot conventions
home
parties
arguments
love relationships
sibling rivalries
conventions:
the ingredients we expect to see in a particular genre
perspective:
a point of view/attitude
text type
short stories:
a basic single plot
limited characters
limited time span/scope
one integral conflict/crisis
50-15,000 words
novels:
multiple plots and sub-plots
several characters: protagonist, antagonist, minor characters
may cover a vast amount of time
multiple conflicts
50,000 words +
text form
monologue:
a speech delivered by one person, who exposes inner thoughts and provides insights into his/her character
the character speaks out their thoughts about a specific event/situation
always first person
put stage directions in brackets
context
where:
physical location
alone?
when:
before/during/after
not as important as long as consistant
what:
topic - what has happened/what is happening?
who:
who is talking and how this will effect language
why:
emotions being expressed?
phonetics, phonology, prosodics:
how speech sounds and effects are articulated and analysed
phonetics:
the study of speech sounds, their production and combination, and their representation by written symbols
phonetic symbols
consonants
vowels:pure
vowels: diphthongs
a vowel sound that is the combination of two separate sounds, where a speaker glides from one to another
glottal stop
phonology:
the study of speech sounds of a language or languages, and the laws governing them
prosodics:
relating to the rhythm and intonation, the way a speaker's voice rises and falls, of language
prosodic features
intonation
the quality/tone of voice in speech, which can stay level, rise or fall
emphatic stress
stress placed upon words/syllables in spoken discourse
pace
the speed at which someone talks
accelerando
speech that is getting faster
rallentando
speech that is getting slower
lexis and semantics
semantics:
the study of the meaning of words and sentences
synonym
words that have equivalent meanings
anonym:
words that have contrasting meanings
hypernym:
words that label categories
e.g: animal (category would include dog, cat...)
hyponym:
words that can be included in a larger, more general category
e.g: the hyponyms car, bus, aeroplane as a form of the hypernym transport
denotations:
the literal and primary meaning of a word which is universally agreed upon
connotations:
an idea/emotion/feeling that a word invokes within a person in addition to the literal denotation
lexis:
the words used in text
lexeme:
word/lexical term
may have different variants
e.g: dance/dancing/danced
derivative:
a word from an earlier word/root
e.g: ‘childhood’ is a derivative of ‘child’
lexical (open classes)
verbs:
a word which expresses doing/being/having
regular verbs:
follows a predictable pattern when switching between tenses
e.g: beg, cheat, jump
follows the typical rule of adding ‘ed’ to the end of a present tense verb to create the past tense form
e.g: listen becomes listened, look becomes looked
irregular verbs:
don’t follow the normal pattern when switching between tenses
e.g: forget becomes forgot, say becomes said
dynamic verbs:
denotes an actual action/expression/process done by the subject
e.g: run, work, play
static verbs:
tell us about the state or condition, rather than an action
e.g: prefers, requires, agree, imagine
imperative verbs:
where an instruction/order is being given
e.g: stop playing that music
modal verbs:
express a range of judgements about the likelihood/possibility of events within a sentence
e.g: could, would, may
verb group:
may have one or more verbs
full (lexical) verbs:
the main verbs in a sentence
e.g: study, eat, listen
auxiliary verb:
a verb that is used with another verb to show the other verb's tense/ to form a question
e.g: be, do, have, will, shall
primary verbs:
can act as the lexical verb or as an auxiliary verb, depending on the sentence
as a lexical verb:
tom is happy – ‘is’ is the only verb
as an auxiliary verb:
tom is running – ‘is’ is helping the lexical verb ‘running’
modal vs auxiliary:
auxiliary verbs change according to tense, whereas modal verbs don’t
infinitive verb:
begins with 'to'
e.g: The judge sentenced the prisoner to be hanged
adjectives:
words that are used to describe nouns
e.g: beautiful, blue, strange
most adjectives can occur before and after a noun
attributive adjectives:
adjectives in the first position (before the noun)
predicative adjectives:
adjectives in the second position (after the noun)
don't immediately follow after the noun, they follow a verb
adjectives can be used to make comparisons
comparative adjectives:
e.g: a brighter smile, a bigger house
most comparatives are formed by adding -er
however, some adjectives form the comparative by adding 'more'
e.g: more fortunate
superlative adjectives:
e.g: the brightest smile, the biggest house
most superlatives are formed by adding -est
however, some adjectives form the superlative by adding 'most'
e.g: most fortunate
adverbs:
can modify/describe a verb
can be used to create modality
e.g: Mr Birling is absolutely responsible for Eva’s death / Arguably, Mr Birling is responsible for Eva’s death
degree:
modify the degree of the verb
e.g: we just made it/I work quite hard
manner:
modify the manner of the verb
e.g: she slipped accidentally, I laughed wildly
place:
modify the location of the verb
e.g: sit there, the animals ran inside
time:
modify the time of the verb
e.g: stop writing now/she’s arriving tomorrow
adverbial:
two adverbs
phrase not word
e.g: fairly regularly
fronted adverbs:
adverbs of manner and time can often be moved to the front of a sentence or clause
e.g: quickly, the crowd dissipated/tomorrow, I fly to England
conjunctive adverbs and adverbials:
act as conjunctions, linking sentences/clauses
e.g: Romeo and Juliet loved each other. However, their families were feuding
causal:
e.g: accordingly/as a result/consequently
temporal (time):
e.g: finally/meanwhile/next
developing:
e.g: furthermore/indeed/likewise
contradicting:
e.g: besides/however/wheareas
nouns:
a word which is used to refer to people/places/objects/ideas
proper nouns:
names a particular person/place/thing (capitalised)
e.g: Tom, Chicago, Friday
common nouns:
a generic name for a person/place/thing (not capitalised)
abstract/concrete nouns
abstract nouns:
refers to an idea/concept that doesn’t exist in the real world
can’t be touched
concrete nouns:
refers to a physical object in the real world
e.g: dog, ball
count nouns:
nouns that can be counted
e.g: twenty students, eight rooms, one box
non-count nouns:
nouns that can’t be counted
e.g: water, air, food
collective nouns:
refers to a group of people/things
e.g: army, flock, stack
plural nouns:
used to show there are more than one
e.g: children, schools, doors
zero plural nouns:
don’t change in their plural forms
e.g: series, aircraft, species
verbal nouns:
derived directly from a verb
e.g: verb=to build -> verbal noun=building
verb=to decide -> verbal noun=decision
functional (closed classes)
pronouns
determiners:
used in front of nouns to indicate whether you are referring to something specific or something of a particular type
articles
indefinite article:
a/an
definite article:
the
demonstratives:
e.g: this/that/these/those
place in sentence:
central determiner:
if there is only one determiner
e.g: the dog
pre-determiners:
a word used before a determiner
can be used in a noun phrase
e.g: all the dogs
post determiners:
a word used after a determiner
can be used in a noun phrase
e.g: the three dogs
quantifiers:
e.g: some/any/every/more/much/few/little
ordinals:
e.g: first/second/third/last/next
numbers:
e.g: one/two/three/four/twenty/fifty/hundred
prepositions
conjunctions
vocabulary:
an individual word used in a text
prepositions vs adverbs:
the animals ran inside (adverb)
the animals ran inside the enclosure (preposition)
language techniques
jargon:
special words or expressions used by a profession or group that are difficult for others to understand
semantic field:
a group of words which share a similar semantic association
e.g: waves/ship/blue/tide/surf/boat - semantic field of sea
used to:
explore a theme or atmosphere:
helps build realistic scenarios: settings and environments, emotions and thoughts
words distinctly outside of the semantic field would stick out and could be less effective, although sometimes this can be a deliberate choice
shock or surprise:
the actual semantic field is unlikely to shock/surprise readers because it has to be built up through the use of multiple words
however, a contrast to the chosen field could be effective at helping impart a message or make the piece of work more memorable
build an emotion:
helps create undertones
builds emotion and provides subtle indications to a reader as to what may be about to happen
listing
asyndetic listing:
when items are listed using commas rather than conjunctions such as 'and'
e.g: On the ground floor there is a hallway, front lounge, dining room, kitchen/diner, utility room and shower room
provides a focus on quantity
syndetic listing:
when items are listed using a conjunction such as ‘and’
e.g: She missed the bus and the next bus and the next bus and the one after that
can be used to add more emotion
discourse