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Human Nutrition level 4, Human Physiology #, Human Nutrition Level 5, Used…
Human Nutrition level 4
Cell Biology
Domains of Life
Archaea
thermophiles
hyperthermophiles
psychrophiles
Halophiles
acidophiles
Alkaliphiles
Eukaryotes
Animal, plants, fungi, protists
has a nucleus
mitosis and meiosis
#
animals don't have a cell wall but plants do
prokaryotes
smaller
reproduce asexually
cell wall
made out of peptidoglycan
Eukaryota
bacteria
Spherical
Rod shaped
Spiral Shaped
Interphase
G1
S
G2
Cellular Structure
Plasma membrane
#
Cell transport
#
Homeostasis
passive transport
active transport
The Cytoskeleton
cytoplasm
cytosol
is involved in the transport of metabolites
It is the site of protein biosynthesis (translation)
It is involved in signal transduction
It forms the basis of the cytoskeleton
functions
organises the content of the cell
connects the cell physically and biochemically
to the external environment
generates coordinated forces
cytoskeletal polymers
microtubules
important during cell division
centrosomes
centrioles
actin filaments
cell motility
intermediate filaments
The endomembrane system
Exocytosis and endocytosis
Golgi apparatus
Endoplasmic reticulum
Cellular processes
Genome organisation
Mitosis and Meiosis
Haploid
Transcription and Translation
#
Cell signalling and aging
#
the cell cycle
G0 phase
M (mitosis)
#
prophase
metaphase
Anaphase
Telophase
Cytokinesis
lac operon
operon - distinct genes
Microbial Aspects **
Microbial growth
Disease causing microbes
#
#
Introduction to Immunology
Microbial Ecology
Skills
preparing agar plates
making serial dilutions for drugs
making a stab culture
Principles of Human Nutrition
Macronutrients
#
Lipids
#
Carbohydrates
#
proteins
Dietary balance
Nutrition and Health
Over-nutrition & Non-Communicable Diseases (NCDs)
Undernutrition & Communicable Diseases (CDs)
Physiological Changes Across Life Stages
life stages
Infancy (0-1 year)
Rapid growth & brain development.
Immature immune & digestive systems.
High nutritional needs (breast milk/formula).
Childhood (1-12 years)
Adolescence (12-18 years)
Adulthood (18-65 years)
Older Adulthood (65+ years)
Psychological & Social Influences on Eating Habits
micronutrients
vitamins
minerals
Metabolism of Nutrition and Exercise
Energy In Energy Out
#
#
forms of energy
mechanical energy
PHOTOSYNTHESIS: RADIANT ENERGY → CHEMICAL ENERGY
chemical energy
radiant energy
electrical energy
energy obtained
glycolysis
beta oxidation
deamination
kreb's cycle
factors impacting energy expenditure
body size
body composition
gender
age
climate
genetic differences
Biochemical Pathways
Carbohydrate Metabolism
monosaccharides
Disaccharides
maltose
sucrose
lactose
polysaccharides
starch
amylose
amylopectin
digestion starts from the mouth
glycaemic index
Low GI 55 or less
Medium GI 56-69 inclusive
High GI 70 or more
cellular respiration
four stages
glycolysis
the link reaction
krebs cycle
the electron transport chain
Lipid metabolism
types of lipids
saturated fat
monosaturated
polysaturated
catabolism, anabolism, transportation, storage
tranport
Chylomicrons
Non-Esterified Fatty Acids (NEFA)
Protein Metabolism
#
compound are hydrogen, carbon, oxygen, nitrogen
constituted of Amino Acids
essential - histidine, isoleucine, leucine, lysine, methionine, phenylalanine, threonine, tryptophan, and valine
non essential - alanine, arginine, asparagine, aspartic acid, cysteine, glutamic acid, glutamine, glycine, proline, serine, and tyrosine
building blocks of proteins
connected by peptide bonds
dipeptide
tripeptide
oligopeptide
polypeptide
organisations
primary
secondary
tertiary
quaterrnary
liver removes AA in deamination
keto acid+ammonia
source of energy
Physiological Adaptation
adaptations and responses to excersise
adaptation
aerobic capacity
anaerobic capacity
hormones
noropinephrine
epinephrine
Cardiac Output (L/min) = Heart Rate (bpm) x Stroke Volume (L)
trainiing
Endurance training elicits cardiovascular and neuromuscular adaptations
Resistance training predominantly elicits neuromuscular adaptations
acute response to exercise
Automatic blood pressure monitor
Monark Cycle ergometer
Handgrip dynamometer
RPE scale
Nutritional Demands in Sport & Exercise
Professional Development in Science
#
Academic & Critical Writing
group work
research ethics and integrity
communication
ethical dilemmas
graphs
bar chart
histogram
scatter graph
pie chart
statistics
mean
standard deviation
average
research papers
Psychology and Sociology of Health and wellbeing
eating and health
psychological
Sociological theory
Marketing
Cultural factors
eating behaviour
#
exposure
social learning
associative learning
food reward theory
transthoeretical model
Precontemplation
Contemplation
Preparation
Action
Maintenance
Termination
COM B model
capability
opportunity
motivation
Human Physiology
#
epithelial tissue
function
Protection
Absorption
Secretion
Excretion
Sensory Reception
Types of Epithelial Tissue
Based on Layering
Simple Epithelium
Stratified Epithelium
Pseudo stratified Epithelium
Based on Shape
Squamous
Cuboidal
Columnar
Specialisations of Epithelial Tissue
cilia
microvilli
keratinization
Glandular Epithelium
exocrine glands
endocrine glands
Systemic functions
Musculoskeletal System
#
#
connective tissue
types of bones
long bones
short
flat
irregular
bone cells
Osteocytes: Maintain bone tissue.
Osteoblasts: Build new bone.
Osteoclasts: Break down bone for remodeling.
Osteoprogenitor Cells: Stem cells that differentiate into osteoblasts.
Cardiovascular System
Respiratory System
Blood Physiology (Acid/Base Balance)
#
Renal System (Fluid Balance & Filtration)
resting membrane potential
Necessary for generating action potentials, allowing cells (especially neurons and muscle cells) to respond to stimuli.
key components
ion concentrations
ion channels
leak channels
Voltage-Gated Channels
ion pumps
Sodium-Potassium Pump (Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase)
maintain
K⁺ Diffusion
Na⁺-K⁺ Pump
Anions (Proteins and Phosphates)
Electrochemical Gradients
Concentration Gradient
Electrical Gradient
Equilibrium Potential
action potentials
phases
resting state
Typically around -70 mV
depolarisation
repolarisation
hyperpolarisation
return to resting state
Ion Channels Involved
Na⁺
K⁺
Na⁺/K⁺ ATPase
refractory periods
hormonal control (endocrine)
function
Homeostasis
Growth and Development
Metabolism Regulation
Reproduction
Stress Response
Endocrine Glands & Their Hormones
Hypothalamus
Pituitary Gland
Anterior Pituitary: growth hormones
Posterior Pituitary: ADH (Antidiuretic Hormone), Oxytocin
thyroid gland
Produces Thyroxine (T4) & Triiodothyronine (T3)
Releases Calcitonin
Parathyroid Glands
Releases Parathyroid Hormone (PTH)
Mechanisms of Hormonal Control
Negative Feedback
Positive Feedback
Hormone-Receptor Binding
blood pressure monitoring
Human Nutrition Level 5
metabolic biochemistry
#
#
glycolosis
Function
Breakdown of glucose
Produces energy
Equation
Glucose → 2 pyruvate
+2 ATP, +2 NADH
Importance
Major energy source
Produces biomolecule precursors
protein structure
Loops
Surface regions
Binding & active sites
Tertiary Structure
3D shape of protein
Determines function
Enzymes
Specific active site residues
Enable reactions
enzyme inhibition
Non-competitive
Lines meet at -1/Km
Reduces activity
Ki & IC50
Ki = inhibitor strength
IC50 = 50% inhibition
Irreversible
Binds tightly (often covalent)
Permanently inactivates enzyme
enzyme regulation
#
Purpose
Control metabolism
Types
Enzyme amount
Enzyme activity
Enzyme Amount
↑/↓ synthesis & degradation
Slow response
Enzyme Activity
Proteolytic activation (irreversible)
Covalent modification
Allosteric regulation
Key Point
Activity control = fast
cell signalling and disease
Purpose
Cell communication
Control responses
Mechanisms
Receptor changes (e.g. phosphorylation)
Signal activation
Disease
Genetic variants
Altered signalling
urea cycle disorders
Diagnosis
↑ ammonia
Amino acid analysis
Genetic tests
Treatment
Low protein diet
Medication (remove ammonia)
Amino acid formulas
Liver transplant (severe)
Acquired
Liver disease
High protein diet
Uric Acid
From purines
↑ = crystals → gout
fatty acid metabolism
Triglycerides
Main fat storage
Storage
In adipocytes (fat cells)
Function
Energy source
TCA
Role
Energy production (ATP)
Location
Mitochondria
Inputs
Carbs, fats, proteins
→ Acetyl-CoA
TCA Cycle
Produces NADH, CO2
Ox Phos
Produces ATP
Metabolism
Catabolism → energy
Anabolism → building
Research Methods
effective presentation
content
purpose
audience
evidence based
structure
introduction
body
conclusion
slides
images
key message of each slide is clear
delivery
voice and body language
rehearse
tackling questions
public speaking
academic writing
plan your discussion
logical development
revise your plan regularly
paragraph
topic sentence
elaboration
support
conclusion
clarity, precision,effiency
paraphrasing
scrutinising research
avoiding biases
research and referencing
statistics
The definition:
• The science of collecting, analyzing,
interpreting and presenting data
continuous values
A value that is unlimited and may have commas
catagorical values
only certain (limited) answers or value exist
independant parameters
paired parameters
regressions
regression to the mean
polynomial regression
systematic review
Systematic reviews are a type of review that uses repeatable analytical methods to collect
secondary data and analyse it
the value of systematic reviews
address gaps in knowledge
Synthesis of multiple studies is more accurate than a single study
Give the best possible estimate of any true effect
For students: more flexibility, increased criticality of published literature, new skill
16:59
Applied Nutrition
#
nutritional coding
Definition
Link intake → nutrients
Process
Collection
Processing
Validation
Errors (Collection)
Poor recall
Interview bias
Missing data
Errors (Coding)
Wrong food codes
Quantity mistakes
Not updating data
Key Point
Bad data = inaccurate results
validation in nutrition
#
Validation in Nutrition
Validity
Measures true intake
True value + error
Reliability
Consistent results
Reproducible
Key Idea
High reliability ≠ high validity
Considerations
Purpose
Population
Context
Types
Internal validity
External validity
#
Dietary Assessment Methods
What, how much, and how often food is eaten
Assesses diet quality, intake, and health links
Provides data for public health policies and guidelines
Challenges: accuracy and validity of dietary data
Breakfast (History & Today)
Origin: Neolithic era (grains/porridge); later heavier meals (e.g. full English)
Historically eaten after morning work (~10am); earlier breakfast linked to industrial work patterns
Post-WWI: shift to lighter, more convenient breakfasts
Late 1800s+: cereals developed (e.g. Kellogg) due to health, cost, and convenience factors
Modern drivers: convenience, cost, lifestyle changes (e.g. working women)
Breakfast Today (Evaluation)
Variety of options with pros (e.g. convenient, nutrient sources) and cons (e.g. high sugar, processed)
Nutritional value varies by life stage (children, adults, elderly, pregnancy, etc.)
Key skill: evaluate foods critically using evidence (PQS: point, qualify, support)
CRISPR & Precision Breeding
CRISPR = Clustered Regularly Interspaced Short Palindromic Repeats (gene editing tool)
Enables precise DNA changes without necessarily creating GMOs
Precision breeding: targeted genetic changes similar to natural/traditional breeding
Used to improve traits (e.g. yield, disease resistance, nutrition)
Regulation (UK / FSA)
FSA assesses precision-bred foods case-by-case for safety
Must be safe, not mislead consumers, and maintain nutritional value
Genetic Technology (Precision Breeding) Act 2023 supports innovation & food security
Distinct from stricter GMO regulations
Key Idea
More efficient and precise than traditional breeding, with controlled safety oversight
Developing the Nutritionist and Exercise Scientist
research governance
#
Appeals & Process
Appeals against CREC decisions go to UREC
Only allowed if there is “material irregularity”
Must be submitted within 10 working days
UREC decision is final
Application Structure
Coversheet required
Part A completed
Checklist ensures all required information is included
client consultations
Stages: pre-consultation (onboarding), during (info gathering & clarity), post (expectations vs reality)
Key components: confidentiality, safety, clear expectations, structured approach
Consulting Skills
Build rapport and trust
Professional communication
Open-ended questioning
Active listening & empathy
Information & Behaviour
Gather lifestyle, diet, and health information
Identify client goals, concerns, misconceptions
Apply behaviour change techniques
behaviour change
Planning & Designing Nutrition Intervention
Factors Considered: multiple, patient/community input
Patient-Centred Approach: realistic, high probability of positive outcomes
Individualised Intervention: tailored to patient needs
Intervention Design Focus: outcomes/goals
Business Skills - Code of Conduct & Marketing
Definition & Purpose
Legal & ethical standards for professional behaviour
Articulation of organisational rules, values & expectations
Connects organisational purpose and core values to employee behaviour
Demonstrates good governance, supports leadership, enhances culture & reputation
Code of Conduct
Duty to know & follow your professional body’s code
Breach can lead to removal from practice register or loss of indemnity insurance
Even without legal standing, adherence is professionally required
core elements
objective
integrity
confidentiality
professional nehaviour
professional competence
sustainability
Meeting present needs without compromising future generations (UN Brundtland Commission, 1987)
Ongoing process addressing social, environmental, economic concerns for a better world
key milestones
1940s: UN founded post-WWII; focus on international peace & security
1992 – Earth Summit, Rio de Janeiro: Agenda 21 adopted; global partnership for sustainable development
2000 – Millennium Summit: Millennium Declaration; 8 MDGs to reduce extreme poverty by 2015
2015 – 2030 Agenda: 17 SDGs adopted by 193 UN Member States; global urgent call to action
concepts
Sustainability vs Sustainable Development
Social, environmental, and economic integration
Global partnerships essential
Sports Drinks & Fluid/Electrolyte Intake
Sedentary Individuals:
No supplementation needed; normal food/drink intake sufficient
Necessary Circumstances:
During sports and exercise
Purpose of Sports Drinks:
Replace fluid
Replace minerals/electrolytes
Provide carbohydrate (CHO) for energy
Longer exercise → more fluid, electrolytes, CHO required
Sweat rate varies; no one-size-fits-all solution
Key Factors in Fluid Balance:
Fluid ingestion
Gastric emptying (GE)
Intestinal absorption
Commercial Sports Drinks:
Should:
Empty rapidly from stomach
Enhance intestinal absorption
Promote fluid retention
Small-to-moderate CHO + sodium improves absorption, does not delay GE
Scientific rationale: glucose-sodium co-transport stimulates water absorption via osmotic action
Interviews and Focus Group Discussions
Purpose of Qualitative Research:
Understand complex social processes
Capture participant perspectives
Uncover beliefs, values, motivations behind behaviour
Explore context or phenomena with little prior knowledge
Study multiple stakeholder perspectives
Provides deeper understanding of perceptions, practices, and influences
Research Process:
Deductive Thinking (Quantitative):
Theory → Hypothesis → Observation → Confirmation
Inductive Thinking (Qualitative):
Observation → Patterns → Hypothesis → Theory
Key Concept: Deductive vs Inductive reasoning
Exercise Physiology in Action
physiology
The study of functions of the living organism and its parts.
A branch of applied physiology focussed on the study of the
body’s physiological responses to exercise.
allostasis
the process of maintaining homeostasis
the autonomic nervous system
sympathetic
parasympathetic
cardiovascular response to exercise
the cardiorespiratory syste
respiratory tract
lungs
Cardiac output (Q
Cardiac output (Q) = blood per minute
Q = stroke volume × heart rate
Heart rate = beats per minute
Stroke volume = blood per beat
blood vessels
arteries
arterioles
capillaries
venules
hemodynamic
vasodilation
vasoconstriction
gas exchange
transports substances
Removes tissue wastes
Maintains blood flow
Prevents cell death
cardiorespiratory fitness assessment
Indirect VO2 Max
Methods
HR → HRmax
VO2 ↑ with workload
Regression equations
Tests
Max: run, Yo-Yo
Sub-max: cycle, walk, treadmill, step
Field Tests
cheap, easy, many tested
less accurate, pacing/env issues
Key Points
VO2max = fitness
Training ↑ VO2max
Lab = most accurate
endurance training adaptations
Endurance Training Adaptations
Mitochondria
↑ number & function
↑ with training volume
↑ oxidative enzymes
Cardiovascular
↑ cardiac output
↓ resting HR & BP
↑ blood flow & volume
Respiratory
↓ submax ventilation
↑ max ventilation
Muscle
↑ mitochondria
↑ fat use, glycogen sparing
VO2max
↑ mainly via cardiac output
muscle and power
Muscle & Power
Fibre Type
No change in type
↑ oxidative capacity (Type II)
↑ fatigue resistance
Hypertrophy
Moderate-heavy loads
↑ actin & myosin
↑ muscle size (CSA)
6s Peak Power Test
Cycle max effort (6s)
Measures power & cadence
Indicates explosive strength
Importance
Health & ageing
Performance (sport)
Motivation
training zones
Intensity Methods
Load (%1RM / RM)
Velocity
RIR (reps in reserve)
Load Zones
Light → endurance
Moderate → hypertrophy
Heavy → strength
RIR
Reps left before failure
Key Concepts
Fatigue → recovery → adaptation
Progressive overload needed
Training improves performance
diet in health and disease
#
Health & Wellbeing
Definitions
Disease
Illness
Health
Wellbeing
WHO Definition
Physical wellbeing
Mental wellbeing
Social wellbeing
Concepts of Health
Biomedical Model
Biopsychosocial Model
Ecological Concept
Dimensions of Health
Physical
Mental
Social
Emotional
Spiritual
Determinants of Health
Dahlgren & Whitehead Model
Changes in Diet & Food Patterns
Changing Health Patterns
Health Transitions
Prehistoric
Agricultural Revolution
Globalisation
Columbian Exchange
Industrial Age
Stone Age Diet
Nutrition Transition
Burden of Disease
Dual burden
Double burden
Triple burden
Drivers of Change
Future Challenges
Study Design & Epidemiology
Epidemiology
Nutrition Epidemiology
Study Designs
Observational
Cross-sectional
Case-control
Cohort
Experimental
RCT
Bias & Confounding
Systematic Review & Meta-analysis
Bradford Hill Criteria
Nutrition in Older People
Ageing Population
Theories of Ageing
Programmed
Error Theories
Physiological Changes
Body composition
Sarcopenia
Bone density
Nutritional Requirements
Energy
Protein
Vitamins
Factors Affecting Nutrition
Physiological
Social
Environmental
Chronic Diseases
Brain Health & Diet
Fats vs Carbohydrates
Structure & Types
Fats
Carbohydrates
Recommended Intake
Functions
Energy
Cell membranes
Blood glucose
Metabolism
Beta oxidation
Glycolysis
Blood Glucose Regulation
Insulin
Glucagon
Health Effects
high fat intake
affects cholesterol levels
linked to cardiovascular disease
carbohydrates
maintains glucose homeostasis
important for physical activity
pregnancy, lactation & infants
Nutrition in Pregnancy
Protein +25 g/day
Folate (600 mcg)
Vitamin D (bone growth)
Weight gain (BMI dependent)
Developmental Risk
Low birth weight → CVD, T2D
Thrifty phenotype
Complications
Nausea, constipation, heartburn
Manage: small meals, fibre, fluids
High-Risk
Age (<18, >35)
Smoking, alcohol, drugs
Poverty
Lactation
Prolactin (milk)
Oxytocin (ejection)
Reflexes: rooting, sucking, swallowing
+500 kcal/day
Breast Milk
Fat (DHA)
Lactose
Alpha-lactalbumin
IgA (immunity)
Vit D may need supplement
Infants
Rapid growth (double 4–5m, triple 1y)
~100 kcal/kg
Vit A, D, Ca, water
Supplements: Vit D, iron (6m+)
Feeding
Exclusive breastfeeding (6 months)
Colostrum important
Key Points
Breast is best
Start within 1 hour
First 1000 days critical
Nutrient Interactions
Types
Nutrient–nutrient (absorption ↑↓)
Drug–nutrient
Nutrient–gene
Drug–Nutrient Interactions
Alter drug effectiveness
Nutrient depletion (↓ absorption, ↑ excretion)
High risk: elderly, polypharmacy
Drug Effects on Nutrition
Appetite, taste
Absorption, metabolism
GI function, microbiota
Side Effects
GI distress
Blood sugar changes
Weight gain/loss
Example
Grapefruit → inhibits drug metabolism (CYP)
Nutraceuticals
food + medical benefit
prevent disease / improve health
Functional Foods
foods with added health benefits
Nutrient–Gene Interactions
Direct (gene expression)
Epigenetic changes
Genetic variation (SNPs)
Key Idea
nutrition affects gene expression & health
Used in nutrition research and clinical practice