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Gender in Sociology, Women, Key: Turquoise - External, Red - Internal -…

- - - - Impact of feminism in magazines. Compared 70s magazines to 90s magazines and found 70s emphasizes the importance of getting married whereas the 90s women were appealing to be career women and limiting expressive role.
    - - Girls have different ambitions. Interviews of w/c girls were done in 70s and 90s. In the 70s, a girl's priorities were love, marriage, husbands, children, jobs and careers. In the 90s, she found that a girl's priority changed to careers and independence
    - - Due to a shift in legislation there have been changes in employment opportunities such as equal pay act (2010) and sex discrimination act (1975). Numbers of women in employment has risen from 47% to 70% and there has been a fall in the pay gap also (30%->17%)
    - - Increases in divorce rate, cohabitation and female headed lone parents has meant that girls need to be socially and economically independent and not rely on men. Girls have realised that they can have both a family and a career. Independence is important but also desirable.
    - - Policies like GIST and WISE have helped girls to see into their future. Teachers also actively enforce the Sex Discrimination Act within the classroom, promoted equality and showed women who have had important role historically. Teachers actively challenged stereotypical images of females.
    - - Increase in the number of female teachers in the classroom therefore role models for girls in all areas of education. 84% of primary teachers were female and there has been an increase of primary headteachers that are female too.
    - - Girls attempt to gain 'symbolic capital' (status) from their peers in different ways. W/c girls got boyfriends or tried being the 'loud one'. Some adopt hyper-heterosexual feminine identities by spending money on a 'glamorous image', girls that did not adopt this image were labelled 'tramps'. The need for status brings the girls into conflict with the school, preventing them from acquiring educational capital.
    - - Coursework is more particularly beneficial for girls as they are better organised, spend more time on work, present work in neater way and meet deadlines. Girls mature earlier and therefore are encouraged to be neat and patient from an early age. Males are more successful in final exams
  - - - 'Bedroom culture.' Boys were encouraged to be active whilst girls encouraged to be passive. Boys were expected to kick a ball whereas girls are more likely to red or talk
    - - Literacy skills. Because boys are socialised differently it results to poorer literacy skills. There was a belief that reading was feminine which fed into lack of skills. Definite answers make boys feel comfortable whilst English and interpretive subjects made them feel uncomfortable.
    - - A decline in male jobs has led to a 'crisis of masculinity' which boys are unsure of their future roles. Because of globalisation of the economy and manufacturing industry moving to developing countries, many men have lost their traditional role. The insecurity is then reflected in schools where boys don't see the point in working hard and trying to achieve.
    - - Boys underachieve because of 'laddish subcultures' in which values of education are rejected. Willis found that w/c boys rejected hard work, discipline and respect as they knew they would end up in manual labour so they didn't try.
        
        Mac an Ghaill found male peer groups produced a range of class identities. W/c 'macho' lads were dismissive of other aspiring w/c boys and labelled them 'dickhead achievers'. M/c students who were projecting an image of effortless achievement and therefore succeeded and were labelled 'real englishmen'
    - - Boys were believed to have greater behaviour problems and were more disruptive in classrooms. They were always in trouble and will often get suspended.
    - - Staff aren't as strict with boys and have lower expectations. Teachers extend deadlines and accept disruptive behaviour. Boys are overconfident in their ability.
    - - More boys think they're able or very able and fewer boys think they're below average. Girls lack confidence, feel undervalued and see teachers spend all time with the boys.
  - - - Employment remains highly gendered. Jobs tend to be sex types as 'men's' and 'women's'. Women's job tend to involve work similar to that performed by housewives such as childcare or nursing.
    - - Notes that girls and boys are dressed differently, given different toys and encouraged to take part in different activities. Parents reward boys for being active and girls for being passive. This leads to children's beliefs about gender domains.
        
        Gender domains - tasks and activities that boys and girls see as male/female territory.
        
        Boys - Mend a car Girls - Look after someone unwell
    - - Certain subjects 'give off' a gendered image which may dis/encourage boys & girls. This study shows science was seen as a male subject due to high number of male teachers and textbooks that draw on male experiences not female. Boys were found to dominate the lab
        
        EV: DfeS found pupils in sex schools less likely to hold these stereotype subject images
    - - Subject choice can also be influenced by peer pressure. Boys and Girls may apply pressure to an individual if the disapprove of his/her choice. Found that pupils see sport as a male subject, girls who are sporty have to cope with an image that contradicts the conventional female stereotype. Male students found to have label girls 'lesbians and butch'
  - - - Through abusive language, dominant gender and sexual identities are reinforced in the school. Boys use name calling to put girls down if they behave or dress in certain ways.
        
        Lees found that boys call girl 'slags' if they appeared sexually available and 'drags' if they didn't
    - - Use verbal abuse to reinforce their definitions of masculinity. W/c = dickhead achievers, M/c = real englishmen
    - - Visual aspect to the way in which pupils control each others identities. The way in which male teachers and pupils look up and down at girls seeing them as sexual objects and making judgements
    - - Teachers playing a part in reinforcing gender identities. Male teachers told boys off for 'acting like girls' and teased them for being worse than girls. They ignored boys verbal abuse and blamed girls for attracting it.
    - - Identifies a double standard of sexual morality in which boys boast about their sexual exploits but a girl is a slag if she dresses/speaks in a certain way
    - - Found that being popular was crucial to a girls' identity within school. Girls find a tension between fulfilling an idealised feminine identity versus a sexualised identity that involved competing for boys
- - - - Argues striking thing about women's behaviour is how conformist it is. Argues this is due to patriarchal control.
        
        At home - women's domestic role imposes severe restrictions on their time/movement; confining them for long periods DV used, if women reject
        
        In public - women fear male violence is public, especially sexual violence. Media reporting rape cases adds to fear, women are also controlled by the fear of being defined as 'not respectable'. In schools boys control the girls through sexualised verbal abuse.
        
        At work - women's behaviour is controlled by male supervisors and managers. Sexual harassment is widespread and keeps women in place
    - - Argues that humans act rationally and are controlled by being offered a 'deal' - a reward in return for conforming to social norms. People will turn to crime if they don't believe the rewards will be forthcoming and if the rewards of crime appear greater than risks.
        
        Class deals - women who work will be offered material rewards with a decent standard of living/leisure opportunities.
        
        Gender deals - Patriarchal ideology promises women material and emotional rewards from family life by conforming to the norms of the conventional domestic gender role. If rewards aren't available or worth the effort, crime becomes more likely.
      - EV: sees women's behaviour as determined by class/gender deals. Critics argue this underplays the importance of free will and choice. Carlen sample was small and may be unrepresentative
  - - - There's a normative masculinity highly valued by most men. There's 3 different groups:
        
        White m/c males: independence, dominance & control are 'given up' in school and boys are subservient to teachers, they adopt accommodating masculinity. However they compensate for this outside of school by adopting an oppositional masculinity: engaging in pranks, excessive drinking and 'high spirits'
        
        White w/c males: Experience school as emasculating but less chance of academic success so denied route to hegemonic masculinity so construct masculinity around physical aggression/violence. They use violence against those whom they perceive fail to match their perception of masculinity. Oppositional masculinity in and out of school
        
        Black l/c males: Experience more problems finding secure & reasonably paid employment. Face an increased risk of poverty, which means they are less likely to gain status via material goods. These males tend to express masculinity in 'the street' via violence and crime. Use gang membership and violence or property crime to make themselves more masculine.
        
        EV:Is masculinity an explanation - or just a description of male offenders. Doesn't explain why not all men use crime to accomplish masculinity and he over works the concept of masculinity, to explain virtually all male crime from joy riding to fraud.
    - - Following the loss of traditional employment and the expansion of the service sector in Britain, w/c men are now provided a combo of legal employment and wider criminal opportunities through 'night-time economy'. HIs study in Sunderland, for men becoming bouncers in pubs and clubs provided both paid work, illegal business opportunities can be found in 'night-time' economy. The ability to use violence becomes a way of displaying masculinity but also a commodity by which you can earn a living. In this subculture men must use their bodily capital to maintain reputation and employability.
  - - - EV:Most female criminals are w/c - who haven't benefitted from women's liberation as much as the m/c