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Issues & Debates - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Cognitive Psychology Baddeley & Hitch's Working Memory Model The WMM explains the function of short-term memory in the form of different slave systems: central executive, visuo-spatial sketchpad, phonological loop. AO3- This is reductionist as it limits the scope of memory to a small aspect not considering long-term memory unlike the MSM which takes a more holistic approach looking at 3 different levels and how these two memory storages interact. However, it is a more dynamic explanation than the MSM as it considers the flexibility and adaptability of WM due to dual-task performance- where someone can simultaneously do two tasks if it utilises different slave components.
        
        Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Animal Studies - CC theorises that responses to neutral stimuli can be changed through association as seen in Pavlov's experiment where the dog slobbers at the sound of the metronome. Animals studies could be considered reductionist as it ignores the complexities of human behaviour as animal models are more primitive without sociological influences like living in a society, rule of law etc. This means that the break down of learning into simple associations is reductionist as it is based off the findings of animal studies.
        
        Learning Theories Bandura (1971) Social Learning Theory SLT explains how people learn behaviour through imitating a model who they identify with as long as they have the kinaesthetic ability to reproduce the behaviour. This explanation addresses both the influence of models from the external environment as well as cognitive characteristics of the individual. observation and imitation so it is less reductionist than simple stimulus association and response explanation of Classical Conditioning. However, Bandura (1961) study could be considered reductionist since it overlooks the fact children did not only imitate the model's behaviour but invented new aggressive behaviour using a toy gun in the room without observation so SLT is partially reductionist but does take a more hollistic approach.
        
        Biological Psychology Raine et al Brain Structure & Aggression Raine et al study (1997) linked brain functioning, more activity on the right side of the amygdala and underactive prefrontal cortex to aggression. This view is reductionist because it ignores the influence of nurture on aggression and sees aggression as simply a result of brain functioning. However, Adrian Raine himself had the same brain functioning as a killer but he was not a violent person so this theory is only a partial explanation for aggression and may be too simplified.
        
        Biological Psychology Evolutionary Explanation - Evolution suggests males in most species evolved to be more aggressive than females because aggression would give them a survival advantage to hunt and fight. This is more holistic an explanation than the brain or hormones because evolution could also account for why males generally produce more testosterone than females. However, the evolutionary explanation still doesn't account to why some males are very passive and why some females are more aggressive.
        
        Clinical Psychology Rosenhan (1973) DSM The Diagnostic Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders contains a multiaxial system to look at more than 1 aspect of a person to diagnose different mental disorders. This is not reductionist since it looks at other factors- already present physical/mental disorders, environmental factors like housing, personality disorders so doctors make sure to have a holistic view of a patient. However, Rosenhan (1973) was able to fool the DSM with normal people simply presenting symptoms of the disorder and getting admitted to mental hospitals thus it may ignore the fact that a mental disorder will not show up with the same recognisable pattern of symptoms in every person.
        
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- - - - AO1 Caging/Accommodation- close to natural habitat of species. AO3 Richard Ryder speciesism - said its morally wrong to treat animals differently to human participants. While some say that we have an ethical responsibility to human beings well-being more than animals
        
        AO1 Cost-Benefit Analysis Bateson's Cube: 1. animal suffering 2. quality of research 3. certainty of benefit hollow space= should continue solid= should not AO3 could be seen as a standardised and objective guideline however animal suffering, and certainty of benefit are both subjectively set by the researcher
        
        AO1 Endangered species not unless doing research on conservation AO3 raises ethical issues on species that are used- highly intelligent species 98% of monkey's DNA is same as humans= distasteful to do experiments on them
        
        AO1 Social Situation for animals must match their natural environment for example bunnies kept in pairs to stop them from becoming depressed AO3 Harlow's rhesus monkeys study on attachments monkeys isolated- mental and physical negative impact on health caused public outcry. Benefits of research on primary caregiving helped countless children
        
        AO1 Reduce pain and discomfort to a minimum AO3 Old studies did not follow these guidelines like Pavlov (1927) where dogs were put under invasive procedures to collect their saliva. It is subjective to the human how much pain the animal is in- so may not be able to give the right dose of anaesthesia by simply interpreting their behaviour still causing harm
        
        Reduce- number of animals used and still get credible results, Utilitarian argument- morally right if action benefits the greatest number for the greater good
  - - - Fully Informed Consent - are told clearly the true aims and procedure of the study with minimal deception
        
        Debrief- at the end of the study any deception is revealed AO3 Milgram 1963
        
        Right to Withdraw- allowed to leave the study at any time during the research and after, must retract all their data- either be destroyed or given to them, must be told multiple times and reassured that they have the right to withdraw and any incentive given will not be taken away AO3 Burger 2009 $50 given right to withdraw whereas Milgram $4 would be taken may feel they have a duty to continue no matter what even though they might not want Eg. Milgram's 1963 baseline exp verbal prods 'you must continue' might infringe on right to withdraw
        
        Physical and Psychological Harm
        
        CONCLUSION
- - - - Conclusion the interactionist approach may be favourable in considering this debate. Our biology does affect out behaviour but our environment also affects our biology- complex interaction between a person's natural personality and ability vs the effect of surrounding factors that play a role in behaviour. To say human behaviour is influenced only by one or the other is overly simplistic and insufficient explanation.
- - - - How to answer to what extent is psychology a science 20 marker? - 6 paragraphs + Conclusion 1. Empirical evidence is gained through examination and observation of phenomena directly making it scientific however there are abstract concepts in society. This is done through the senses. 2. Falsifiability- ability to prove a theory wrong (for a theory can never be proved right for example having meaning from your dreams) 3. Control- changing the IV to see the effect on the DV extraneous variables are hard to control may affect the DV (+ x variable causes y correlation based research can be found however correlation does not equal causation cannot be concluded) 4. Reliability 5. Reductionist- breaking into constituent parts. Science is inherently reductionist. 6. Validity- quantitative closed-question self-report data Conclusion- to a large extent due to empirical studies and lab exp with strong controls, however individual differences do exist between humans due to our cultural surroundings so variables can never be truly isolated and controlled meaning will never be completely scientific.
        
        AO1 - A science is able to produce falsifiable hypotheses. Science studies concepts in a reductionist manner not a holistic manner. According to Popper to be a science there should be an overarching paradigm. A science uses data collection and hypothesis testing to progress knowledge in a research area. Biological psychology uses animals where all conditions can be carefully and closely controlled. Methadology such as labratory experiments is seen as fulfilling scientific criteria. Objectivity is considered to make something more scientific whereas subjectivity makes it less scientific. Social psychology use unstructured interviews and analyse qualitative data to explore concepts such as prejudice. Biological psychology uses physiological measurements to collect quantitative data such as the analysis of blood tests.
- - - - Learning Theories Bandura (1961, 63) Bandura's study also showed that children would copy a role model showing aggressiveness to the Bobo doll if the model was live, filmed and shown in the room or was a cartoon. The James Bulger case of two ten-year-olds murdering a child was said to be similar to a popular violent movie at the time the kids had watched with the same blue paint being used. It could be said that it is the parent's fault/could be blamed for the children's behaviour because they allowed them to watch violent/aggressive behaviour in movies which would be uncomfortable for parents and unfair to them to take full responsibility for their child's actions because of social learning theory. However, it is still imperative to do this research in order to understand the risks and take action against them for example introducing age ratings in film certifications and active parenting styles where parents monitor what children watch online closely.
        
        Learning Theories Classical Conditioning Aversion therapy uses classical conditioning to get rid of unwanted behaviours. This is through pairing an unpleasant stimulus with an unwanted behaviour. For example, a paedophile can be conditioned to respond to children with fear rather than sexual arousal by pairing thoughts of children with painful electric shocks. While this may be seen as acceptable as it is done with the offenders consent, aversion therapy was used in the past against homosexual men (as homosexualitiy was seen as a crime in the past). This is unethical as they may feel pressured to consent to the treatment by outside sources and feel out of control during it.
        
        Biological Psychology Raine et al Any kind of biological/neurological explanation could be said to be examples of socially sensitive research as it links genetics (something someone is born with) with a certain behaviour like aggression. Raine et al found in a PET scan that killers had certain brain structures different to the control group like an overworking right amygdala. This may mean if this behaviour is not learnt but inherent then the concept of 'punshiment in the form of prison' may not be effective at reducing crime as the principles of operant conditioning to do not apply here. This may mean that in the future it could be possible to have routine screening to predict recidivism. Yet, Raine himself also showed signs of having a killer's brain but was a professor and wasn't aggressive. Many people would be concerned by this sort of screening as it would be a 'slippery slope' in regards to the treatment which could easily go to an extreme- from education classes, meditation to steralisation and imprisonment.
        
        Much of psychological research is correlation based and does not have a clear cause and effect. Raine's research found a link between aggression and specific brain structures it could be that violent behaviour changes the brain structures of killers and not vice-versa which would make it difficult to act upon.
        
        Criminological Psychology Loftus and Palmer Loftus and Palmer's research found that asking leading questions for example saying 'smashed' instead of 'hit' when asking of the speed of a car in a video showcasing an accident can change how fast the participant believed it was going. This calls eye witness testimony into question which had negative implications in how society views the criminal justice system- if criminals go to prison based on false EWT the police will be trusted less as a source to enforce justice
        
        Clinical Psychology Rosenhan In addition, it could be implied from L&P that medical professionals using ICD, and DSM to diagnose a disorder may be wrong as they could ask leading questions based on some symptoms and misdiagnose and giving them the wrong treatment. Trust in the medical profession by the public was also impacted by research conducted by Rosenhan where they found hospitals using the DSM diagnosed perfectly normal participants with schizophrenia based on one symptom. This could lead to less people with symptoms seeking medical help and doubting credibility. However, it is essential that research like this is conducted and information on how to improve care and increase the reliability of the DSM with other revisions is given to the practitioners.
        
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- - - - Watson & Rayner Classical Conditioning. We can create a phobia through classical conditioning. Only on a baby/ controlled setting not real-life. However, it has led to some real-world applications and the developments of treatments such as flooding and systematic desensitisation. Only helps with stimulus response and does not consider past trauma and other factors that could influence the onset of a phobia. However, it can only take it so far and it may be better to take a cognitive element of phobias and this would be treated with CBT
        
        Raine- Common belief crime was due to Nurture factors like poverty trauma or poor parenting post ww2 as biological explanations were frowned upon due to association with genetics although there were animal studies on violent behaviour the link to humans was lower. He tested human brain's prefrontal cortex, limbic system, corpus collosum activity and found links between dysfunction and the group of violent offenders that could lead to emotional dysregulation and aggression. Sampling bias- schizophrenia and brain injury 23/41 p's & correlation does not equal causation. Early Intervention- neurological screenings of youth to prevent crime+ Legal Defences having pet scans taken for death penalty cases to argue diminished capacity. DOes not consider nurture factors although saying it was not a complete explanation like child abuse might be too deterministic and give murderes an excuse to absolve culpability. Use more integrated models to explain crime- epigenetics, and social factors included with CBT.
        
        Rosenhan Dominance of confidence in DSM 2 for identifying psychiatric disorders from a checklist of identifiable symptoms Reliable. Tested the reliability is if consistent deception could be detected with 1 symptom fabricated hearing a voice saying 'thud, empty, hollow' which admitted sane people into the psychiatric hospital with schizophrenia and manic depression diagnosis. In a follow-up experiment 41/193 were identified as sane when he sent no one. Critics argued that psychiatrists rely on patient's honesty and can only make a diagnosis based on this, and may lack reliability and replicability. It lead to diagnostic reform DSM 3 1980 revision which introduced stricter criteria like duration of symptoms to reduce overdiagnosis (DSM 5 more evidence based assessments). Deinstitutionalisation led to more community-based care after exposing poor conditions. This only helps with labelling and diagnositic relaibility/consistency but doesn't tackle the problem of validity of diagnosis because of the inherent subjectivity of a psychiatrist's experience and training. Modern psychiatry balances science with humanity, yet must continually confront biases to avoid conflating difference with disease. As Cahalan noted, the study’s power lay not in its rigor but in forcing the field to "question its own certainty"
- - - - AO1 Token Economy Programmes- used to reduce undesired behaviour like in prisons and increase desired behaviour. Operant Condiitoning positive reinforcement- given reward points inmatesd can cash out for real prizes they want, however this could be short-term once they got what they wanted, people in mental institurion AO3
        
        AO1- Drug therapy after an offense- for people committing an offense drugs may be given chemical castration, or drugs to reduce testosterone production (breast increasing in size when given other hormones) AO3
        
        AO1- Systematic Desensitisation CC AO3 Pavlov 1927
        
        AO1- Brain scans to inform parole decisions, Raine's findings, AO3 who to release and who not to, could prevent violent crime occuring, screening for brain abnormalities in people and getting therapy before violent aggression criminals, however this could mean they are imprisoned before they even commit the crime
        
        CONCLUSION- In conclusion, while the intention behind studying human behaviour is to find out the reasons for this behaviour, like how we learn phobias, then have practical application to better understand and help the world there is also a negative aspect of psychological research being used to control individuals. As a result, psychologists should be mindful of how they publish findings and remain sensitive and responsible.