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Emmanuel Flores Period 5 Respiratory System - Coggle Diagram
Emmanuel Flores
Period 5
Respiratory System
Major functions of the respiratory system
Gas Exchange: O₂ enters blood, CO₂ removed from blood
Air Passageway: Path for airflow between external environment & lungs
Filtration & Humidification: Air is warmed, moistened, and filtered
Speech Production: Vocal cords in the larynx produce sound
Olfaction: Nasal cavity contains olfactory receptors for smell
Blood pH Regulation: CO₂ levels affect acid-base balance
Protection Against Pathogens: Mucus, cilia, and immune defenses trap and remove microbes
Layers of the pleurae
Right Lung:
3 lobes (superior, middle, inferior)
Oblique & horizontal fissures
Left Lung:
2 lobes (superior, inferior)
Oblique fissure only
Smaller due to cardiac notch (space for heart)
Pleurae Layers:
Parietal pleura: Lines thoracic cavity
Visceral pleura: Covers lungs
Pleural cavity: Contains pleural fluid (reduces friction)
Pleural Disorders:
Pleurisy: Inflammation of pleura → Painful breathing
Pleural effusion: Fluid accumulation in pleural cavity
Lower respiratory structures and functions
Larynx (Voice Box)
Cartilages:
Thyroid cartilage (Adam’s apple)
Cricoid cartilage (inferior support)
Epiglottis (elastic cartilage, covers glottis when swallowing)
Vocal Cords:
True vocal cords: Vibrate to produce sound
False vocal cords (vestibular folds): No role in sound, help close airway
Function:
Directs air & food
Houses vocal cords
Laryngitis: Inflammation → Hoarseness
Trachea (Windpipe)
Structure:
4 inches long, C-shaped hyaline cartilage rings
Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Carina: Last cartilage, triggers cough reflex
Function:
Air passageway to lungs
Cilia move debris-laden mucus upwards to be swallowed
Disorders:
Smoking destroys cilia → Leads to mucus accumulation
Tracheal obstruction → Heimlich maneuver
Bronchi & Bronchial Tree
Primary (Main) Bronchi:
Right bronchus: Wider, shorter, more vertical
Left bronchus: Narrower, longer, more horizontal
Branching Pattern:
Primary bronchi →
Secondary (Lobar) bronchi (3 right, 2 left) →
Tertiary (Segmental) bronchi →
Bronchioles →
Terminal bronchioles (end of conducting zone) →
Respiratory bronchioles (start of respiratory zone) →
Alveolar ducts & alveolar sacs
Function: Conducts air, smooth muscle controls airflow resistance
Upper respiratory structures and functions
Nose & Nasal Cavity
Structure: Lined with pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium
Function: Filters, humidifies, and warms incoming air
Nasal conchae (superior, middle, inferior) increase surface area
Goblet cells secrete mucus to trap particles
Paranasal Sinuses
Frontal, Ethmoid, Sphenoid, Maxillary
Function: Lighten skull, act as resonance chambers for voice
Pharynx (Throat)
Nasopharynx: Air passage only, contains pharyngeal tonsils (adenoids)
Oropharynx: Passage for air and food, contains palatine & lingual tonsils
Laryngopharynx: Connects to both esophagus and larynx
Volume and Pressure relationships in thoracic cavity
Volume and Pressure Relationships in the Thoracic Cavity
The relationship between volume and pressure in the thoracic cavity follows Boyle’s Law, which states:
Pressure (P) and volume (V) have an inverse relationship when temperature remains constant.
When volume increases, pressure decreases.
When volume decreases, pressure increases.
This principle is essential for pulmonary ventilation (breathing).
Inspiration (Inhalation) – Active Process
✅ Thoracic Volume Increases → Intrapulmonary Pressure Decreases → Air Enters Lungs
Diaphragm contracts (moves downward), increasing thoracic cavity size.
External intercostal muscles contract, pulling ribs upward and outward.
Lung volume expands, lowering intrapulmonary pressure (pressure inside lungs) below atmospheric pressure (~760 mmHg).
Air moves from high pressure (outside) to low pressure (lungs) until pressure equalizes.
Pressure Changes:
Before inspiration: Intrapulmonary pressure = Atmospheric pressure (~760 mmHg)
During inspiration: Intrapulmonary pressure drops (~757 mmHg)
Expiration (Exhalation) – Passive Process
✅ Thoracic Volume Decreases → Intrapulmonary Pressure Increases → Air Exits Lungs
Diaphragm relaxes (moves upward), reducing thoracic cavity size.
External intercostal muscles relax, allowing ribs to return to normal position.
Lung volume decreases, causing intrapulmonary pressure to rise above atmospheric pressure (~763 mmHg).
Air moves from high pressure (lungs) to low pressure (outside).
Pressure Changes:
Before expiration: Intrapulmonary pressure = Atmospheric pressure (~760 mmHg)
During expiration: Intrapulmonary pressure rises (~763 mmHg)
Forced Breathing (Active Expiration & Deep Inhalation)
Forced Inspiration: Uses sternocleidomastoid, scalenes, and pectoralis minor to further expand thoracic volume.
Forced Expiration: Uses internal intercostals and abdominal muscles to actively decrease thoracic volume and expel air forcefully (e.g., coughing, exercise).
Intrapleural Pressure & Lung Inflation
Intrapleural pressure (pressure in pleural cavity) is always slightly negative (-4 mmHg) to prevent lung collapse.
If intrapleural pressure equals intrapulmonary pressure, lungs collapse (pneumothorax).
Respiratory volumes and capacities
Tidal Volume (TV): Normal breath (~500 mL)(NORMAL)
Vital/Inspiratory Reserve Volume (IRV): Extra air inhaled(DEEP)
Expiratory Reserve Volume (ERV): Extra air exhaled(BEFORE PASS OUT)
Residual Volume (RV): Air left in lungs after full exhale
Average male tidal volume is 525
Compare and contrast the mechanism of inspiration and expiration
Boyle’s Law:
Pressure is inversely related to volume
Inhalation: Increase volume → Decrease pressure → Air enters
Exhalation: Decrease volume → Increase pressure → Air exits
Inspiration (Active Process)
Diaphragm contracts (flattens)
External intercostal muscles contract
Thoracic volume increases → Air enters lungs
Expiration (Passive Process)
Diaphragm relaxes (rises)
External intercostal muscles relax
Thoracic volume decreases → Air is pushed ou
Internal vs. external respiration
External Respiration
External respiration refers to the exchange of gases (oxygen and carbon dioxide) between the atmosphere and the lungs. This process occurs in the alveoli of the lungs, where oxygen is taken from the air and transferred into the blood, while carbon dioxide (a waste product of metabolism) moves from the blood into the air to be exhaled.
Key Features of External Respiration:
Location: In the lungs, specifically in the alveolar-capillary membrane.
Process:
Oxygen (O₂) moves from the alveoli (higher concentration) into the blood (lower concentration).
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) moves from the blood (higher concentration) into the alveoli (lower concentration).
Mechanism: This is driven by diffusion due to differences in partial pressures of gases.
Oxygen diffusion is facilitated by the higher partial pressure of O₂ in the alveoli compared to the blood.
Carbon dioxide diffusion occurs in the opposite direction, from blood (high CO₂) to alveoli (low CO₂).
Internal Respiration
Internal respiration refers to the exchange of gases between the blood and the tissues (cells). Oxygen carried by the blood is delivered to the body’s cells, while carbon dioxide, produced by cellular metabolism, is transferred from the cells into the blood.
Key Features of Internal Respiration:
Location: Occurs in the capillaries of the tissues throughout the body.
Process:
Oxygen (O₂) moves from the blood (higher concentration) into the cells (lower concentration).
Carbon dioxide (CO₂) moves from the cells (higher concentration) into the blood (lower concentration).
Mechanism: Similar to external respiration, internal respiration is also driven by diffusion based on partial pressure gradients.
Asthma
Cause:
Chronic inflammation and narrowing of the airways due to allergens, irritants, or exercise.
Triggered by environmental factors, infections, or allergens.
Symptoms:
Wheezing
Shortness of breath
Chest tightness
Coughing (especially at night or early morning)
Treatment:
Bronchodilators (e.g., albuterol) to open airways
Corticosteroids to reduce inflammation
Leukotriene modifiers for long-term control
Avoiding triggers and using inhalers.
Chronic Obstructive Pulmonary Disease (COPD)
Cause:
Long-term exposure to irritants such as cigarette smoke, air pollution, or dust.
Includes emphysema and chronic bronchitis.
Symptoms:
Chronic cough
Shortness of breath (especially during physical activities)
Frequent respiratory infections
Wheezing
Treatment:
Bronchodilators
Steroids
Oxygen therapy in severe cases
Pulmonary rehabilitation
Smoking cessation and avoiding irritants.
Pneumonia
Cause:
Infection by bacteria, viruses, fungi, or parasites that cause inflammation of the alveoli.
Common causes: Streptococcus pneumoniae, influenza, Mycoplasma, and others.
Symptoms:
Fever and chills
Cough (sometimes with sputum or blood)
Chest pain
Shortness of breath
Fatigue
Treatment:
Antibiotics (for bacterial pneumonia)
Antiviral medications (for viral pneumonia)
Oxygen therapy
Pain relievers
Fluids and rest.
Pulmonary Fibrosis
Cause:
Scarring of lung tissue due to unknown reasons (idiopathic) or due to long-term exposure to irritants such as dust or chemicals.
Can be related to autoimmune diseases, infections, or medications.
Symptoms:
Shortness of breath
Chronic dry cough
Fatigue
Unexplained weight loss
Treatment:
Oxygen therapy
Anti-inflammatory drugs
Immunosuppressive medications
Lung transplant in severe cases.
Sleep Apnea
Cause:
Repeated interruptions in breathing during sleep due to obstruction (obstructive sleep apnea) or failure of respiratory muscles (central sleep apnea).
Symptoms:
Loud snoring
Gasping or choking during sleep
Excessive daytime sleepiness
Difficulty concentrating
Treatment:
Continuous Positive Airway Pressure (CPAP) machine
Lifestyle changes (e.g., weight loss, avoiding alcohol)
Surgery or devices to treat obstructive apnea
Positional therapy (sleeping in certain positions).
Cystic Fibrosis
Cause:
Genetic disorder leading to thick, sticky mucus that clogs the airways and leads to lung infections. It affects the respiratory, digestive, and reproductive systems.
Symptoms:
Persistent cough with thick mucus
Wheezing
Difficulty breathing
Frequent lung infections
Malnutrition
Treatment:
Airway clearance techniques (e.g., chest physiotherapy)
Mucus-thinning drugs
Antibiotics to treat lung infections
Lung transplant in severe cases.
Tuberculosis (TB)
Cause:
Bacterial infection caused by Mycobacterium tuberculosis that primarily affects the lungs but can spread to other organs.
Spread through the air when an infected person coughs or sneezes.
Symptoms:
Persistent cough (sometimes with blood)
Night sweats
Weight loss
Fatigue
Fever
Treatment:
Antibiotic therapy (usually a combination of drugs over several months)
Directly observed therapy (DOT) to ensure proper treatment adherence.
Pulmonary Embolism
Cause:
A blood clot (usually from the legs, called deep vein thrombosis) that travels to the lungs, blocking blood flow.
Can also be caused by fat, air, or amniotic fluid embolism.
Symptoms:
Sudden shortness of breath
Sharp chest pain (especially with deep breaths)
Rapid heart rate
Coughing up blood
Fainting
Treatment:
Anticoagulants (blood thinners)
Thrombolytics (clot-dissolving drugs)
Surgical removal of clot (in severe cases)
Compression stockings to prevent blood clots.
Lung Cancer
Cause:
Most commonly caused by smoking (but also by environmental toxins, radon, or genetic mutations).
Involves the uncontrolled growth of abnormal cells in the lungs.
Symptoms:
Persistent cough
Chest pain
Shortness of breath
Coughing up blood
Unexplained weight loss
Treatment:
Surgery to remove tumors
Chemotherapy
Radiation therapy
Targeted therapies for specific mutations
Immunotherapy.
Acute Respiratory Distress Syndrome (ARDS)
Cause:
Can result from infection, trauma, pneumonia, or inhalation of toxic substances.
Causes widespread inflammation in the lungs.
Symptoms:
Severe shortness of breath
Rapid breathing
Low blood oxygen levels
Cyanosis (bluish skin color)
Treatment:
Mechanical ventilation
Oxygen therapy
Treat underlying cause (e.g., infection, trauma)
Medications to reduce inflammation.
Pleurisy (Pleuritis)
Cause:
Inflammation of the pleurae (lining of the lungs), often due to pneumonia, viral infection, or an autoimmune condition.
Symptoms:
Sharp, stabbing chest pain that worsens with breathing or coughing
Shortness of breath
Pleural friction rub (heard on auscultation)
Treatment:
Anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs)
Steroids for severe inflammation
Pain management.