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W1 - Developmental Psychology Introduction, Experiment Repository, W7-…

- - - - Reveals relationship between variables
      - does NOT reveal cause and effect
    - - Allows cause and effect statements
      - Lab experiments may not apply in real world
  - - - same groups studied at different times
    - - different groups/cohort studies/compared at the same time
    - - mutliple groups studied together at different times
  - - - parental consent required 18yrs under
      - child has to agree to participate ( assent)
- - - - Small immediate environment child lives in
      - Eg; family, peers
    - - Relationship between mircosystems, connections between contexts
      - Strength in the web of suppport around the child
      - communication between the setting
      - Eg; Family-school links, school-church links, family-peer links
    - - contexts not directly linked to child but will directyl impact their microsystem and mesosystem experiences
      - Eg; parents workplace (parents wellbeing impacts child)
    - - cultures laws, values customs, polticial systems
      - Eg; educational policies and investment in schools to grant opportunities, foster individual aspirations
- - - - recognises deep connections between culture, family, history, sprirituality
- - - - children learn to define who they are
      - comprises of attributes abilites attitudes and values of individual
      - Positive self concept = better for children #
  - - - High self esteem
      - Criticisms undermines self esteem
  - - - Self conscious emotions (eg; shame, embarrassment, guilt envy, pride etc)
    - - Achievement
      - Moral behaviour
      - Criticsm ruins pride!!! Bad for growth as an individual
- - - - Based on avoiding punishment, a focus on the consequence of actions rather than intentions; intrinsic deference to authority
      - 4-10yrs
    - - the "right" behaviours are those that are in the best interest of oneself
  - - - social order responsibility ie dont dirnk drive keep community safe
  - - - Understood laws are respected but can be changed if restircting human rights
    - - Morally guided by self chosen moral principles ie justice
- - - - the rose isnt yours
  - - - look around is anyone watching me
  - - - rose smells nice, i want it
- - - - Addition of averisive sitmulus ie yelling
    - - Remove pleasant stimulus take away toy
    - - Aversive, produce anger response + aggression, avoid adult
      - Offers relief to adults reinforced for using coercive displcine
      - Child wont understand why theyre in trouble
      - Alternatives
        
        Communicate why
        
        Time out + explain, how long, what to do better
- - - - self interest personal survival
      - Girls = internal conflict, socialised to care for others but must focus on personal needs
    - - Women = feel pressure to sacrifice for others needs
      - Boy = Ecnouraged to assert independence
    - - Balance between caring for needs of others and own
      - Female = struggle to relcaim voice and agency leanring to say no without guilt
    - - Longitudinal between 13-18yrs of age
      - Boys = levels of prosocial behaviour stable till 14 then increase till 17, followed by decrease
      - Girls = prosocial increased steadily till 16 then slightly decreased
- - - - Attention - Pays attention to the cues to signal the skill
      - Observation - watch the model perform
      - Retention - observer creates mental picture of the skill and mentally reharse performing it
    - - Motor reproduction - observe must be capable of repeating the skill
      - Motivation - observe must have right level of motivation to want to copy the skill
      - Performance - carrying it out
- - - - Are children adopted in ealry life more similar physologically to their birth vs adoptive parents
- - - - Ectoderm
      - Mesoderm
      - Endoderm
- - - - seperate activities, but interact
    - - Actions directed toward common goal
- - - - Success credited to ability
      - Children good at reading = confident + greater persistance
      - Children fail = dev neg academic self concepts, less engagement with reading tasks in future
    - - Success credited to luck, failure to low ability
      - Belief ability NOT changeable, give up on tasks
- - - - well organised conception of self, made up of values beliefs and goals
    - - Adolescents appear shallow and directionless
    - - Temporary period of confusion and distress in complex societies as adolescents experiment with alternatives before settling on values and goals
      - Could lead to Depression or Suicide
        
        D = Most common psych teen problem
        
        S = third highest leading cause of death
  - - - Enhanced when fam is secure base
      - Fostered by education promotes high level thinking
        
        Extracurricular and community activities, vocational training programs
  - - - Low SES, Minority youth
      - Correlates = temperament, poor school performance, peer rejection, antisocial, low intelligence
      - Fam enviornments
        
        Low warmth, high conflict, inconsistent displcine
        
        Culture diff - emotion arousal. influence by authority figures
      - Schools
        
        Large class, poor quality, rigid rules
        
        Youth with more optimistic view of success = less likely to be involve in delinquent behaviours
- - - - Less money available for education?
    - - New partner
      - Less encouragement, less help with schoolwork
- - - - 6 stages of self-discovery, forming unique identity
        
        Identity, intimacy, career consolidation, generativity, keeper of meaning, integrity
        
        highlights iportance of relationships shaping wellbeing and life quality
  - - - Entry life structure early adulthood 22-28
        
        Age 30 transition
        
        Culiminating life structure early adulthood 33-40
        
        Entry life sturtcure middle adulthood 45-50
        
        Age 50 transition
        
        Culminatin life structure middle adulthood 55-60
        
        1 more item...
  - - - Generativity = adults desire to leave legacy
      - Stagnation = self-absorption dev when no legacy for next gen
- - - - Ie; banana = phone, feeding teddy, bucket = hat
    - - Words refer to objects and people
      - Ie; word = a symbol, 'cup' is a cup
    - - Object permanence
        
        Piaget claim infants dont have object permanence until 10 mo - minnimouse study with 3mo showed they have it
      - Deferred imitation
        
        Piaget said occurs at end of sensorimotor
        
        6mo or 6 week old - imitate facial expressoin
      - Cultural influences
        
        nuances between milestones - ie using instrumental or tool
        
        Accelerated skill aquisition
  - - - Distinguish appearance from reality
      - Dual representation
        
        Map/picture ie; the paper itself is real, the picture of the bear is another thing
      - Representational flexibility
        
        Can a balloon be a lollipop? Circle w stick, older chilren can see it as both. Younger only see it as balloon.
      - Scale errors - children try to interact wth toys even when miniature (ie still trying to get into mini car)
    - - Does fireman Sam put out real fires?
    - - Perspective taking
        
        P said kids are egocentric based on 3 mountains task - though could be because it was boring
        
        Seasame st character made more interesting
        
        Occurs younger than thought
      - Conservaiton
        
        P said kids do NOT have conservaiton of number
        
        Wording of question changes outcome ie; black cows v slepeing cows
      - Cultural influences
        
        Bali, Indonesia
        
        4yr use geocentric location reference
        
        Challenges idea that geocentric is more complex
        
        School system teachers geocentric
  - - - Zimb = more adv understanding of economic principles
        
        Engage in Bartering
    - - Use body parts for counting and have better understaning of number younger
  - - - Small changes in piagetian tasks affect solvability SIGNIFICANTLY
      - Children can be trained to perform tasks from higher cognitive stage challenging rigid stage-based model
      - Limitations beyond childhood
        
        Not useful beyond adolescence or adult cognition
- - - - distance between actual dev level as determined by individual problem solving and level of potential dev as determined thorugh problem solving under adult guidance.
      - Ie teacher supports them to icnrease knowledge improving knowledge level
      - Diff children have diff ZPD
      - Behaviour = provide less guidance if child will find it easy and more if they'll find it hard
- - - - 7yr children use to help remember
      - Age diff in effectiveness of rehearsal which are due to how strategy is applied
      - Repeat to themselves over and over
    - - grouping info together
        
        ie; animals or home objects
      - Children > 10yr can 'organise' less effectively tho
    - - making associatoins between itmes to improve recall
        
        fish and hat - might say 'the fish put his hat on'
      - Young child - a lady had a broom
      - older child - lady flew on broom for halloween
        
        More salient, better
    - - 10yr can suggest strategy for remembering a bday gift from 2 yr ago
      - 5yr only 50% suggest strategy
- - - - Implications for children eye witness legal stand
      - How children are mislead
        
        Encode less info
        
        Encode info with gaps
        
        Difficulty distinguishing what they experienced v what is mentioned after
        
        Difficulty recalling source of their memory
        
        Children think if adults ask a question there IS an answer
- - - - Block design
      - Coding
      - Vocabulary
      - Reasoning
  - - - Aggregated performance (general ability) (g factor)
      - Specific ability (s)
      - Intelilgence is mostly inheritable
      - Thurstone CHALLENGED
        
        No 'g' factor
        
        Intelligence made of 7 primary mental abilites
        
        Verbal comprehension
        
        Word fluency
        
        number ability
        
        visual spatial intelligences
        
        Associative memory
        
        Perceptual Speed
        
        Reasoning - logical/problem solving
      - Cattell
        
        2 types of intelligence #
        
        Fluid intelligence
        
        bio based
        
        Free from enviro influences - culture
        
        Crystallised intelligence
        
        Grow out of experiences
        
        enviro determined - culture
    - - Intelligence isnt just 1 skill but A set
      - Interpersonal people smart
      - deep questions/existential smarts
      - Musical smarts
      - Verbal/linguistic smart etc
    - - Triarchic Theory of Intelligence
        
        Analytic intell.
        
        coding, representing, planning, solutions
        
        COMPONENTIAL
        
        Creative intell.
        
        use past experiences to deal with insight and new problems
        
        EXPERIENTIAL
        
        Practical intelligence
        
        Adaptation, altertion, selection, life demands everyday living
        
        CONTEXTUAL
- - - - learning = deeply social process
      - interactino with adult ESSENTIAL for child to dev higher order thinking skills
      - scaffolding = the support more konwledgeable person provides to help child achieve something they coudlnt alone
      - learning thorugh cultural transmission
      - knowledge IS culture specific
      - what skills are valued differs across cultures
      - ie; math = important in china
    - - cognitive dev happens thorugh child independent exploration and discovery
      - child = little scientist constructing understanding of world thorugh intercationc
      - while adults are important for providing environmentr to explore their intervention might be a hinderence to childs discovery process
- - - - acculturation process
        
        Integration = wish to maintain original culture and be apart of majority group
        
        Assimilation = not maintain og culture, be apart of new culture
        
        Seperation = maintain og culture and do NOT want to be apart of new culture
        
        Marginalisation = do NOT maintain og culture and do NOT want to be apart of new
      - meanign of culture CHANGES
    - - dominant vs minority group
      - in v out-group
      - impact of minority status on dev
      - socioeconomic status
        
        violent acts ie poverrty
        
        dev of stereotypes
    - - social eventsc
      - celebrations rituals
      - ilnness and death of loved ones
- - - - Positive -> Myan women see it as newfound freedom
      - Negative -> wetsern = old and bad
      - dont have a word for it in arabic = "desperate age"
- - - - Oral
      - Anal
      - Phallic
      - Latency
      - Genital
      - Intimacy vs isolation
      - Greatly vs stagnation
      - Ego vs despair
- - - - depends on temperment, past experinces, situation
    - - 3 mo = pleasure smile
      - 3-4 mo = wariness
      - 4-7 mo = joy, anger
      - 4 mo = surprise
      - 5-9 mo = fear
      - 18 mo = shame
    - - 7-10 mo = perceive facial expression and tone + match voice to face
      - 5mo = social referencing, child reies on trusted persons emotional reactions in uncertain situations
      - 2 yr = injury to or enhancement of self shame
    - - implications for experiencing self concious emotions like shame embarrassment, guilt, envy
      - Better emotion regulation in 9 mo old infant predicted higher levels of empathy at 2 yr old (Peterson et al., 2018)
      - Presence of others is necessary for development of THESE emotions #
        
        achievment
        
        Moral behaviour
      - Mothers socialisation style is storngly/positvely relaed to child emotion regulation skills (Li et al., 2019)
    - - predicts adjustment
      - biological pscyh suggest it to be innate
      - inborn traits that determine behaviour style
      - Easy child - 40%
        
        generally cheerful, establishs routine quick
        
        Adapts easily to new experiences
      - Slow to warm up 15%
        
        inactive show mild reaction to stimuli
        
        negative and ajdust slow to new expeirences
      - Difficult child 10%
        
        irregular daily routines, slow to accept new experiences
        
        tend to react negatively and intensley
      - mixed pattern 35%
        
        blended pattrns from the above, no clear pattern
- - - - Visibly distresed, cries, call for mum
    - - Gives up hope, withdraws, quiet
    - - More interesting in surroundings, interact with others, ignore mum when she visits
  - - - species universla, important for survival, in face of survival attachment increases lieklihood of survial
    - - pre-set program designed via evoluation (nat selection)
      - Activated by perceived threats
    - - protects indiidual by maintaining close proximity to caregiver who should be:
        
        Responsive
        
        Provide safe haven
        
        Provide secure base
        
        child may move around and explore, if they can see mum
        
        if distressed can come back #
      - Operate in goal-corrected manner
        
        goal = seek comfort
        
        such nature allows it to act as a Store-house of erson-environment interactions called working models (flexible not static)
        
        working models of self
        
        working models of others
        
        must both be positve to estabnlish positve, secure attachment #
    - - Pre-attachment
        
        indiscrinate socialbility birth to 6 weeks
        
        coing babbling smiling cyring bring baby into close contact
      - Attachment in the making
        
        6w to 8 motnhs
        
        responds diff to familiar caregiver/stranger
      - Specific clear cut attachment
        
        6-8mo
        
        attchment to caregiver evident
        
        seperation anciet upset at departure
        
        stranger anxiety avoidance
      - Recirpocity
        
        formaiton of reciprocal relationship
        
        18mo to 2 yrs
        
        goal corrected coordination partnerhsip dev
        
        increased capacityu to tolerate absences, seperation aniety decreases
        
        basic sense of trust dev
  - - - Short seperations from and reuninos with parent
      - Measures attachment between 1 and 2 yrs
      - Secure attachment
        
        distressed by seperation and easily comforted upon reurn
        
        Positive sense of self and positive sense of other
      - 6--70% securley attached
    - - child NOT distressed by seperation
      - Low engagement, avoid parent upon return
    - - Close to parent before departureA
      - Angry upon return; hit and push them
    - - Confused when reunited
      - Reflects greatest insecurity
      - Most mental health issues
  - - - Leaves child threatened believe no safe haven
      - child tried to deal with unregulated distress alone
      - use secondary attachment strategies (Main, 1990)
        
        Deactivation
        
        Hyperactivation
    - - Balloons happy -> burst = child scared
      - Bursts in relationship come from ignoring, put down, shame, blame, being unavilable
      - Repairing of relatinoships vs avoid relatinoships
      - If potthole on road left unattended, avoided, no repair is occuring -> it becomes bigger
      - Pottholes exist in all relationships, repair after rupture - leads to secure attachment
- - - - mother-infant dyad engge in freeplay whilst brain activity recorded (frontal cortex activity)
      - Higher was level of turn taking and reposnsiveness higher neural syncrhony in prefrontal cortex - Area involed in social cognition and self regulation
- - - - Survival
        
        Breathing
        
        Rooting (turn cheek to direction of touch) (eg; find breast to drink)
        
        Sucking/swallowing
      - Primitive
        
        Moro (startle response- child throws arm back to loud noise)
        
        Grasping (curls fingers around object in palm), Stepping, Swimming and Tonic neck, babinski (toes fan)
    - - Emerge after 2 months
      - Play with object (rattle/ball)
    - - Neck holding
      - Rolls over
      - Walking holding onto furniture
      - 12-14 months walking
- - - - Better physical endurance
      - Improved motor coordinatoin
      - Achievement motivation
      - Teamwork
      - Friendships/confidence
- - - - Songs and stories heard in utero
      - Prefer mothers voice
      - Own language
      - Baby talk > adult talk
- - - - Pat vs Tap
  - - - Speech sounds, native language rythm, stress patterns, order of sounds (phonotactics)
- - - - 18-24mo rapid spurt
        
        ERLI language tool for Australian Indigenous Children
        
        OZI-R Australian-English Developmental Vocabulary Inventory
    - - Input factors
        
        Languages youre hearing
        
        Learning more than 1
        
        Rich v impoverished language enviornment
      - Intake Factors
        
        Hearing impairment
        
        Otitis media with effusion
        
        Attention
    - - Used to not account for bilingual v monolingual children and was innacurate
      - Not applicable to all countries ie; us say cookie au say bicky
- - - - Over 1-1.7millino women and men expeirence abuse AUS
      - Those who experience childhood abuse more likely to experience violence from partner
  - - - intentional or unintentional that lead to harm of young person
        
        ie; forgetting to feed
    - - Physical
        
        unexplained bruises (diff stages of healing)
        
        Welts, bites, burns
        
        fractures, abrasions
        
        Swollen areas
        
        inappropriate treatment for injuries
      - Behavioural
        
        Withdrawn/aggressive
        
        arrive to school early or stay back late
        
        chronic runaway behaviour (adolescent)
        
        Soreness moving uncomfortably
        
        Wear clothing inappropriate to weather to cover body - ie long sleeve hot day
    - - use of minor for gratification of adult or adolescent
      - indicators
        
        inappropriate knowledge of sexual acts
        
        seductive behaviour
        
        reluctance to undress
        
        extra aggression or etxreme compliance
        
        fear particular person
        
        hyperarousal
    - - Psych maltreatment - ignore, frighten, corruption
      - Most common
      - Verbal Abuse
        
        Shaming, name calling, 'worthless'
        
        Habitual blaming (scapegoat)
        
        Fault finding
      - Witholding affection, extreme punishment
  - - - Child characteristics
        
        Difficult children
        
        Special needs
        
        LGBTQI
      - Parent Caregiver
        
        Difficulty bonding
        
        Maltreatment themselves
        
        Unrealistic expectations
        
        Substance abuse
        
        Low self esteem
        
        Poor emotional regulation
        
        Criminal Activity
      - Bronfenbrenner Ecological Model LINKS
      - Family Relationships
        
        Family breakdowns
        
        Isolated in community
      - Community and Societal Factors
        
        Social inequity, rigid gender roles
        
        Lack of housing
        
        unemployment, poverty
        
        Easy availability to substancs
        
        Child trafficking, prostitution, labour
        
        Social norms glorifying violence
- - - - disabilities due to malnutrition
      - Increase risk of miscarriage - bad mother health
    - - Use child as sheilds
      - Startle repsonse
      - Poor sleep - yelling
    - - Higher levels aggression
      - Difficulties with school work
      - Fear school - difficulties in concentration/attention
    - - Depression (girls)
      - Risk taking behaviours
      - Runaway
      - Participant in violence themselves
- - - - Paddles that represent face-like patterns spent more time looking at with eye tracking studies
  - - - infants born with ability to differentiate between faces of diff ethinicities
        
        Ability declines as not regularly exposed to them
  - - - Studies suggest lower rates of refractive errors in indigenous communities
        
        spending more time OUTDOORS helps
    - - Enviromental, Ecological, Nurture
      - Low accessibility in Indigenous communities = less screening, later identification of visual problems and lack of treatment worsening condition
  - - - Storytelling practices
- - - - Children progress through stages in thinking
      - Stages correspond to broad changes in structure or logic of their intelligence
      - Evolving Structures - schemas that grow and change
      - Characteristics of intelligent activity that remain the same at all ages
      - Organisation of schema and their adaptation through assimilation and accomodation
        
        Assimilation
        
        Same and grow schema
        
        All 4 legged animals = dog
        
        All vehicles = car
        
        Fit things into existing schema
        
        Helps child consolidate mental structres
        
        Accomodation
        
        Diff, challenge schema
        
        From car and truck to adding SUV
        
        Adjust existing schema to fit new information
        
        Cats diff to dogs
        
        Leads to growth and change
    - - Sensorimotor 0-24mo
        
        Knowledge is acquired through activity
        
        Learn through sucking toys, touching things
        
        Learn to distinguish themselves from envrionmet
        
        Begin to understand causality and TOWARDS THE END -> dev capacity for intenral representations
        
        6 Stages
        
        0-1mo = Reflex - sucking, looking
        
        1-4mo = Primary circular reactions - repeated movements
        
        4-10mo = Secondary circular reactions - focus on objects
        
        10-12mo = coordination of secondary cir reac - combine schemas to achieve goals
        
        12-18mo = Tertiary circular reactions
        
        18-24mo = internal mental representation
        
        Evidence for Children achieving mental representation by end of SM stage
        
        Deferred imitation
        
        Object permanence
        
        7mo FAILED - couldnt understand toy still existed under blanket
        
        9mo succeeded
      - Pre-Operational 2-7yr
        
        Builds capacity for symbolic thought
        
        Rapid increase in language which emerges due to symbolic thought
        
        Egocentric thinking
        
        3 Mountains
        
        Child is allowed to walk around and view from diff angles
        
        Asked to describe what the doll sees from their persepctive
        
        Trouble differentiating a viewpoint other than theirs
        
        Failure to shift viewpoint demonstrates egocentric thinking
        
        Conservation Tasks
        
        Line toys up, positioning
        
        Ie coins same number in rows or not - stretch out but same number. children failure conservation.
        
        Clay - 2 balls = same, then roll out one children fail and say it has more
      - Concrete Operational 7-12yr
        
        Children succeed Conservation + justify
        
        Limitations on thinking
        
        Difficulty with abstract reasoning
        
        Adam is taller than Levi, Adami is smaller than Corey. Who is the tallest?
        
        Usually fail but easier with dolls
      - Formal Operational 12+
        
        Make conclusions from abstract reasoning