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01 RELIGIOUS REFORMS
1 THE CATHOLIC CHURCH IN CRISIS
The practice of buying and selling indulgences, which allowed for the forgiveness of sins in exchange for money, generated controversy and criticism.
These abuses and the need for reforms prompted some to demand profound changes within the Church.
The printing press facilitated the spread of these ideas. The rise of authoritarian monarchies weakened the power of the Pope, giving monarchs greater control over the Church.
The Catholic Church lost authority due to its lack of spirituality and inability to adapt at the beginning of the Modern Age.
Humanism promoted individual interpretation of the Bible and personal religious critical thinking.
2 THE PROTESTANT REFORMATION
THE LUTHERAN REFORMATION
In 1517, Luther published his Ninety-Five Theses, criticizing the sale of indulgences to build St. Peter's Basilica.
After refusing to recant, Luther was excommunicated and developed his own doctrine based on individual faith.
The Protestant Reformation of the 16th century began with Martin Luther, who opposed the indulgences of Pope Leo X.
Emperor Charles V condemned Lutheranism, but princes and cities protested, giving rise to the term 'Protestants' and initiating conflicts with the Catholic princes.
CALVINISM
Protestant ideas became radicalized in Switzerland, where Calvin established a theocracy in Geneva.
3 THE CATHOLIC REFORMATION: THE COUNTER-REFORMATION
The Catholic Church implemented the Counter-Reformation to halt the Protestant advance through internal reforms.
The Council of Trent reaffirmed the papal hierarchy and Catholic dogma, including salvation by faith and works.
The Vulgate was ratified as the only valid Bible and the Catholic interpretation as the correct one.
Clergy discipline was strengthened, the Inquisition was established, and the Society of Jesus was created to promote Catholicism.
02 HISPANIC DOMINANCE
1 THE UNIVERSAL CHRISTIAN EMPIRE OF CARLOS V
Juana I gave Charles I the kingdoms of Aragon and Castile, including their Mediterranean and American territories.
Philip I bequeathed Flanders and Burgundy, inherited from his mother, Mary of Burgundy, to Charles I.
Maximilian I of Austria, paternal grandfather, contributed Austria and other territories to the Holy Roman Empire.
In 1519, Charles I obtained the right to the title of Holy Roman Emperor, consolidating his power.
WARS IN THE EMPIRE
Charles V aspired to a universal Christian Empire after his coronation in 1520.
Their goal was to dominate Europe to defend Catholicism, based on medieval unity.
The Protestants, France, the Ottoman Empire and the Pope opposed his ambitions.
2 THE HISPANIC MONARCHY UNDER FELIPE II
In 1556, Charles V abdicated, dividing his empire between Ferdinand (Habsburg) and Philip II (Spain and Burgundy).
In 1561, Madrid became the capital of Spain due to Castile's contribution to the Empire.
Philip II consolidated a monarchical system of government based on councils.
After the death of Sebastian I in 1578, Philip II and Anthony of Portugal claimed the throne.
In 1580, Philip II was recognized as king, while Portugal maintained its laws and institutions.
3 THE HISPANIC KINGDOMS UNDER CARLOS V AND FELIPE II
The 16th century saw banditry in Aragon and four major rebellions, generating significant social problems.
The Hispanic economy grew in the 16th century, but declined at the end. Population growth and foreign policy affected the economy and trade.
Non-irrigated cereal agriculture was important, although irrigated agriculture was more productive.
Livestock farming was notable for its wool production, which was exported and used in artisanal production.
Trade flourished thanks to the export of wool and textiles, with important fairs.