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The outcomes, models and types of clinical supervision (CS) for the…

- - - - Emphasis on the restorative function
        
        Proctor (1988) included a supportive aspect for attention to self-development
        
        Milne (2017) argues the restorative aspect should also consider the supervisor's perspective
        
        NHS Employers (2024) fear this cannot identify causes of emotional responses to work-based experiences
      - Some use of the formative function
        
        Proctor (1988) values critical reflection as learning opportunities to underpin practice with theory
      - Normative function is least applicable for personal development (Minouei et al., 2025)
    - - Restorative for benefit of professional and therapeutic relationships (Stacey et al., 2017)
        
        Seeks to understand the role of emotions in driving responses in situations (Wallbank, 2016)
    - - Integrates restorative and psychotherapy therefore application to OT's using the psychodynamic approach
        (Crouch et al., 2025)
      - Applicable by advanced supervisors
        (Hawkins et al. 2020)
  - - - Bastable (2023) links resilience with emotional readiness to learn and practice
      - Wang et al. (2024) correlate wellbeing with job retention
      - Butterworth (2022) warns that an emphasis on resilience can overshadow other emotions
    - - Facilitating and practicing mindfulness techniques and self-compassion (Shohet & Shohet, 2020)
        
        Mitigating burnout and attrition in confidence of established staff (King et al. 2020)
        
        Educating skills early in newly qualified supervisees' career (Stacey et al., 2020)
      - Reflecting on external influences' impact on wellbeing
        (King et al. 2020)
        
        Identifying areas for improvement in service delivery (Hawkins et al., 2020)
      - Increased tolerance of doubt and uncertainty per negative capability (Yerushalmi, 2019)
    - - Confidence to assert boundaries of role (Walder et al., 2022)
      - Advancing therapeutic use of self
        (Hussain et al. 2018)
      - Dependence on supervisor may stunt forging own identity (Bernard & Goodyear, 2019)
  - - - Gopee (2023) argued that Proctor's (1988) model is most applicable 1:1
        
        Hawkins et al. (2020) argues Proctor (1988) suits peer-supervision
      - Earle et al. (2017) attribute 1:1 most conducive to identifying risks of burnout
        
        Supervisee may not share reflections in concern of impacting supervisor's perception (Milne & Reiser, 2023)
    - - Caron et al. (2024) recommend for regular monitoring of anxiety-levels
        
        Reflects digitalisation of healthcare
        (Health Education and Improvement Wales, 2023)
        
        Disconnect in engagement due to screens (Bjorklund & Silen, 2021)
    - - RBCS most conducive in groups with supervisor's facilitation of reflective framework (Baldwin et al., 2022)
        
        Collaborative approach to sharing stress-management strategies (Lau et al., 2019)
        
        Practices compassion for self and others (Stacey et al., 2017)
- - - - Evidencing adherence to regulatory and organisational policies (Public Health Wales, 2023)
        
        Lifelong learning per RCOT's (2021) continuous professional development
        
        Keshavarzi et al. (2022) view supervisor's role as facilitator of learning
        
        Dancza et al. (2023) argue supervisee to learn facilitation skills in collaborative learning
        
        Progression in proficiency per RCOT's (2022) career advancement framework
    - - Positive risk-management per RCOT (2018)
        
        Risk averseness deriving from feeling unsupported (Bastable, 2023)
        
        Ensuring ethical decision making
        (Prasetia et al., 2022)
      - Refining clinical skills by applying theory discussed in CS (Keshavarzi et al., 2022)
        
        Promoting evidence-based practice with underpinning theory
        (Pendleton & Schultz-Krohn, 2018)
        
        Prudent use of organisational resources through clinical reasoning (Garcia et al., 2021)
      - Focus on theory can overshadow interpersonal skills (Quaile et al., 2024)
  - - - Hawkins et al. (2020) argue applicable in training
        
        New specialist training needs moving into Learning Disabilities (Creek, 2023)
      - Draws upon learning theory to upskill supervisee
        (Davys & Beddoe, 2021)
        
        Supervisor to scaffold support per Vygotsky’s (1978) Zone of Proximal Development
        
        Self-directed learning (Knowles et al., 2020)
      - Developmental model designed purposefully for CS
        (Bernard & Goodyear, 2019)
    - - Formative
        
        Refines skills through reflection
        (Proctor, 1988)
        
        Process of generating tacit knowledge (Raelin, 2010)
        
        Encourages experiential learning
        per Kolb (1984)
      - Normative
        
        Adherence to standards and policies of the Health and Care Professions Council (HCPC, 2021)
        
        Advancing competence within organisational and clinical matters (King et al., 2020)
        
        Risks prioritising management over employee (Carter et al. 2023)
      - Restorative function least applicable for professional development (Minouei et al., 2025)
    - - Conducive to discussing clinical issues
        
        Aligns with the problem-solving ethos by RCOT (Royal College of Occupational Therapy, 2021)
      - Public Health Wales (2023) advises against identifying problems without solutions
        
        Solution-focused model offers positive perspective (Dierolf et al., 2024)
        
        Creates strength-based environment (King et al., 2020)
        
        Using appreciative inquiry and unconditional positive regard (Shohet & Shohet, 2020)
      - Incorrect use risks supervisor giving advice and actions (Clear, 2018)
  - - - Developmental approach encourages self-direction in joining peer-supervision (Bernard & Goodyear, 2019)
        
        Forums in OT curriculum include:
        inter-professional education and problem-based learning groups
        (Spencer et al., 2019)
      - Risk of peers sharing incorrect interpretations (Saab et al., 2021)
        
        Mitigated by use of 1:1 also to check with supervisor (Gopee, 2023)
    - - Frequency can be perceived as surveillance and sporadic perceived uninterested (Hawkins et al., 2020)
        
        Gopee (2023) recommends supervision contract to stipulate timeframes and expectations
      - Milne (2017) poses cognitive-behavioural approach through agenda, summaries and actions
    - - Group approach develops case-based learning and problem-solving (Knowles et al., 2020)
        
        Vygotsky's (1978) Peer-Assisted Learning views supervisor as Most Knowledge Other
        
        Revans' (1980) Action Learning Set facilitated by supervisor
    - - Competencies-led per preceptorship
        (HCPC, 2023)
        
        Braveman (2022) recommends feedback based upon observation
      - Work-based observations (HCPC, 2023)