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Global Politics: Democracy and its challenges - Coggle Diagram
Global Politics: Democracy and its challenges
I. What is democracy and how to measure it
1.1. Definitions
Demo. = maj. rule by "the ppl." through act of voting
Unique process of making and biding decisions collectivelly
Contested (R. Dahl): too broad def. = "everything and nothing at the same time"
Demo. too wide = ≠ interpret possible
ROOSEVELT: "ultimate rulers are the voters"
TSE-TUNG: "socialist demo. = ppl.'s demo. dictatorship, led by L class"
KHOMEINI: "Islamic demo. = divine gov. where laws aren't contested
Demo too wide = problem to measure
Procedure Demo. "Demo. = maj. rule by "the ppl" through voting
Substantive Demo.: "Strong equality, strong min. rights and protection"
1.2. Brief history of democracy
Og in Ancient GRK (Demo (people) + Kratia (Rule))
Athens ('rule of maj')= decision made in Ecclesia (assembly) w/ ≈ 450 white M. elected
Ancient Rome = elements of democracy
Senators = people's power + power of veto (uncommon for the time and place)
"Demo. idea invented as loc. remedy for athenian problems and then expanded to the WRLD" (J. Donne)
Democratic Revolutions
1776, US Independence: Gov. = powers attributed to representative M., w/ consent of ppl." ; "taxation should be on parliament"
1789, FR Revolution: Constit 1791 = Power ∈ National Assembly w/ temporarily representatives elected by the people
1.3. 3 questions about democracy
Who are 'the people' ?
Initially excluded slaves or M. w/ø property
US 1777: lim. to Wh. M. +21y, since 1880 started to be more demo.
UK 1669: 35% of M. could vote ; 1928 = equal votes
SWI: early 70s W. could vote, but equal terms only on the 90s
What is the true Demo.?
What is Democratic vote ?
Direct/Pure Demo.
: Citizen vote directly policies
* Indirect/Representative Demo. (Republic)
: citizens elect official representatives to decide policies (Preferred due to practicality + expertise)
condition for meaningful demo. vote: Multipartyism; Impartial info of candidates, ø threat of violence...
How do we measure democracy?
Freedom House: Free, Partly Free, Not free (7 indicators: Civil Liberties, Political rights...)
Economist Democracy Index: Full, Flawed, Hybrid/Authoritarian (Electoral process, governance...)
Polity project: 21 scale classifying in Monarchy to consolidated demo.
II. Democratisation (What causes) and Democratic Backsliding (What hampers)
2.1. Democratization
Defintion: Transition from non demo to demo. political system (Kauffman)
One time, Rapidly, Foreign intervention, inherent from colonialism...
Stages:
Liberalization
: Starts to open up (mix of policies)
Transition
: Transformation into demo. (free election ≈ new president, parliament and constitution)
Consolidation
: Behaviourly (ø attempt to take power, Attitudinaly (citizens believe in demo.) and Constitutionally (Rule of law)
3 Waves of democratization:
1st (1828 - 1926)
: USA, FR, UK, SWI and ITA (1922-1942: Reversion of demo transition)
2nd (1943-62)
: W. GER, AUS? JAP, BR, ISR, ITA (2nd: 1958-75)
3rd (1974-91)
: South & East EU, LATAM and pt. of ASI and AFR
Theories (why some are faster than others?)
1. Elite Choice
: Shaped & transitioned when elite decides is best for them (political, Econ., social elites)
Critics: Neglect: structural conditions and role social movements, civil society
2. Structural Explanations
: Broader socio Econ. & instit. factors
Cultural explanation
: Political insist. only aligns w/ societal cultures (norms, cultural values...)
Econ. explanation
: Condition to impact in transition (eg. Econ. growth and modernization theory)
Critics for Econ.: Ignores deviant cases (eg. CHN and IND)
Modernization theory (Econ.)= Hypothesis that demo is more common in rich countries, w/ support for it by civic culture attitude
2.2. Democratic Backsliding
Definition: State led debilitation or elimination of demo. insist --> diverse orders and process
Demo. Stagnation
= lim. change level of demo. over some period (deficits on substational demo = semi demo)
Confronting it
before
: easy to identify, harder to combat ≠
nowadays
: harder to identify, easier to combat
Evolution
Before
: Brutal, Rapid and Radical changes = Military coup (Econ. and Institutional. factors)
Nowadays
: Gradual, Subtle and Institutional changes = Institutional coup (Choices that transform the regime)
Promissory coups
: "Temporary" to restore demo. --> often on post coup election w/ ø demo. conditions
Executive aggrandizement
: + executive power w/ ø regime change (constit. amendments, legal measures...) to consolidate power
III. Examples 1: LATAM , MENA and India
3.1. Contextualizaiton/ Background
Latam
: Protagonist of 3rd wave of democratization (mainly 80s) after dictatorships in 70s
Significant backsliding since and difficult to id.
MENA
: Geo based (not cultural) (≠ Arab spring = only Arab countries (eg. no ISR or Iran and include some sub-Saharan))
10 to -10 consolidated demo to authoritarian (Syr = -9; Mor = -4; Tun = 7) --> eg. EU mbm states must be min. 8
What explain lim. spread of democratization: Religion, Cultural, Authoritarian gov....?
India
: Religious country w/ maj. Hinduism = 80% vs. Islam = 14% and Christianity = 2%
"Largest demo. in the WRLD" can be now contested
80% pop. poverty (60% poverty and 20% extreme poverty)
3.2. Democratization
Latam
Shallow democratization: Before 1978 demo. were rare and after it became norm;
Massive change in 20th, 90s = almost every country had elected regimes
Karl: Difficulty of demo in fragile Econ context
Demo. def include wide range political conditions, but if just consider vote & competitvity, Latam dictatorship = demo.
Risks of demo. backsliding: Econ crisis, Mass mov., Foreign power actions...
Methods of demo. transition
Compromise: Elite ascendant = Pact (COL); Mass ascendant = Reform (ARG)
Force: Elite ascendant = Imposition (BRA); Mass ascendant = Revolution (MEX)
80s & 90s setbacks and rise of populism
Demo stagnation and backsliding: linked to poor Econ. perfomance, corruption, crime...
Rise of populism (Pure ppl x Corrupt elite): Politicians should be in 'volonté générale of the citizens)
Pop. leader = elected promising inclusion of the elusion but when in power disrupts demo. elements
MENA: Arab Spring/'4th wave' of democratization
Arab spring = Anti regime protests (2010-12)
Spaked by M. BOUAZIZI
TUN, LIB, EGY... and other in smaller scale demanding: free speech, ø corruption, elections...
Outcomes
Some remained the same (ALG)
Some got better conditions, but still authoritarian (LYB)
Some had demo. installation (TUN)
India: Deviant Case in 'Democratization Theory' (II, 2.1)
Demo transition = + likely to consolidate when there is Econ. growth and social conditions
≠: IND = Econ growth, but extreme inequality
IND condition would normally = ø voting
Not the case: voter turnout (1952-2024), loc. voting > national
Poor people voting > rich ppl
*¨Why?: Election + Democracy = sacred in IND (Banerjee)
"Underprivileged groups have never been so strong support to demo."
Demo =. sacred
Symbolic power (eg. black ink) = social cohesion, self worth, faith in demo..
"U may be poor but ur contributing to the country"
3.3. Democratic Backsliding
India: 2005-2025: free to partly free (Why? = 2 reasons)
1. Xenophobic Nationalism
(BJP, in power since 2014)
Promoted/Tolerated attacks against muslims and christians
Centralized power + restrained civil rights/liberties
Worsening = Pandemic via social media --> "their fault"
2. Thereat to religious min.
*
'Authentic ppl.' = hindu (happy w/ demo)
"Muslim = reproduction threat (W. = overreprod and M. = overs sexualized)
Conspiracy theory = "they want to end us" -- eg. love jihad = influence in law-making
Global Trend Modi = secure their power w/ exclusionary project + assaults vs. civil liberties
Latam demo. = stuck or in extinction
Worse moment since 80s
Demo stagnation of even breakdown
(ø case of demo. deepening)
Solution: Adress inequality and Econ. reforms to strengthen demo. institutions vs. corruption
--> See Metaphor w/ water in Fiche
Why Latam demos are stagnating?
1. Powerful groups
: no wish to produce ppl. rights --> executive power restrained due to influence of criminals groups or corrupted institutions (eg. police)
2. Poor gov. results
: Insatisfaction w/ demo. due to corruption and poor Econ perfomance = rise of populists
3. Hybrid states
: Rule of law build on politicians and elite interests (violating citizens rights and ø quality of life)
Mainwaring & Peren-Liñen: 5 types of Latam demo.
1. High level liberal demo.
(CSR, CHI, URU
2. Mid level liberal demo
. (BRA, ARG, PER)
3. Low level liberal demo.
(COL, PAR, MEX)
4. Competitive authoritarians regimes
(HAI)
5. Closed authoritarian regimes
(VEN, CUB, NIC)
MENA: Lim. spread of democratisation (Structural explanation, III., 2.1.)
Cultural Explanation
: Religion Demo.
Maj. ppl. is Arab countries = islam or live in country w/ ofc religion --> islam and demo. = incompatible?
S. Huntington thesis
: Conflict values, norms & inst., modern demo. dev. in Wst can be transformed in Wst imposition to N-Wst
Counterarg. 1 - Tessler
: Demo. support not necessarily lower in islamic countries (one does not prevent other); Religion wst = conservative, not necessarily in Islam
Counterarg. 2 - Deviant cases w/ muslim as maj. in partly free countries
: IDN, SEN and TUN (9, 7,7) --> Correlation ≠ Causation
Econ Explanation
: 'Oil/Ressource Curse' (oil lim. spread of Demo)
* Hypothesis
: Counties w/ natura ressource as income = - % to be demo.
1. Countries = rich, doesn't need tax
--> consequently citizens can't demand nothin (ø State accountability)
2. Money spend in repression
= intelligence, secret service and repressive forces to suppress ppl. request for demo. (ø incentive for monitor public)
EXAMPLE 2: USA