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Qualitative Interviews - Y2 (QRM) - Coggle Diagram
Qualitative Interviews - Y2 (QRM)
What are qualitative interviews?
The importance of an interview -
The biggest part of doing qualitative research, and IPA in particular, is the analysis - this is what the account is formed from
The quality of the data sets a cap for the analysis that you can do
Requirements for a good research interview -
-> Identification of research interest areas
-> Clear specification of research questions / aims
-> A very carefully designed interview schedule
-> Considerable interpersonal skill on the part of the interview
Ways of collecting qualitative data - interviews, focus groups, diaries, observation and secondary texts
Advantages of interviews -
Flexible and adaptable
Can ask people directly about what is going on - subjective meanings
Can make use of non-verbal cues
Can explore issues difficult to examine by more quantitative methods
Can provide rich and illuminating material
Disadvantages of interviews
Lack of standardisation
Time consuming
Expensive
May be difficult in some fields to get interviews
Requires considerable skill
How are interviews used in research?
To identify the areas subsequent research can focus on
To collect data of the main study
In conjunction with quantitative methods
To pilot and validate other research instruments
To check the validity and relevance of the researcher's interpretations of the data involved in the study
Types of interviews
Individual v group interviews
Face-to-face v telephone - online interviews
Virtual interviews are a poor substitute for face-to-face interviews - however, these methods such as phone, email and online interviews are regarded as different types of interview method
Extensions of traditional method, as extensions of the traditional method rather than substitutes, which have strengths and weaknesses in their own right (Sturges and Hanrahan, 2004)
Qualitative interviews often involve an audio-recording that is transcribed and written out for analysis
Structured v semi-structured v unstructured
Structured - pre-determined sets of questions
Responses recorded on standardised schedules
Semi-structured - predetermined set of questions but order and wording can be modified
Inappropriate questions can be omitted and explanations can be added
Unstructured - interviewer has general area of interest / concern
Lets conversation develop in areas of interest
Evaluation of structured interviews -
Provide data which is easily quantifiable
Ensure compatability across respondents
Ensure all relevant topics are covered
Inhibit unanticipated discoveries
Respondents may feel constrained because they cannot give information they may feel to be important
Evaluation of unstructured / semi-structured interviews -
Provide rich data
Provide data relevant to the participants
Enable interviewer to test the limits of participant knowledge
Encourage cooperation and rapport
Sacrifice comparability across respondents
Analysis of data is time consuming
Designing a semi-structured interview
Why construct an interview schedule -
Forces us to think explicitly about what we hope the interview may cover
We can identify beforehand difficulties with wording and possible sensitive areas
Having sorted out the above we can concentrate in the interview on what is actually being said
Producing an interview schedule - Smith, 2008:
Identify issues to be covered -> put topics in appropriate sequence -> think of appropriate questions for each topic -> questions should be open, rather than closed, forced or scale
Think about possible probes and prompts to elicit information
Example interview schedule -
Interview schedule - patient’s experience of renal dialysis -
Dialysis - Describe experience, what they do, what they think and feel about it, how does it affect your life
identity - Describing self for themselves, self before dialysis and peer opinions
Coping
Interview structure -
Put topics in appropriate sequence -
What is the most logical order to address the issues
Which is the most sensitive area (put this later so rapport can be built)
Shape of interview -
Introduction -> warm-up -> main body of interview -> cool-off -> closure
Content of an interview
Probes - Devices designed to encourage an interviewee to expand on what they have just said -
-> Possible probes such as silence, enquiring glances, agreement / encouragement to continue, repeating back or all of what an interviewee has said, asking if there is anything else
Prompts - suggesting to the interviewee of possible responses
-> These are pre-prepared and must be used consistently by different interviewers
Drafting interview questions -
How bad did you feel when you were made redundant?
-> This is too explicit and insensitive
Can you describe the day you were made redundant, starting with when you first became aware it might happen?
-> Good - this is gentle nudging
Types of question - Descriptive questions prompt the interviewee to provide a general account of 'what happened' or 'what is the case'
Structural questions are about how the interviewee organises their knowledge
Contrast questions ask the interviewee to make comparisons between particular events and experiences
Evaluative questions ask about the interviewee's feelings towards someone or something
Questions to avoid -
Long questions
Double-barrelled questions
Questions involving jargon
Leading questions
Biased questions
Double negatives
Acts as catchalls
Preparing for interviews
Test and practice your interview technique
Plan the data collection process
Do not overload an interview schedule - stick to one a day, as they require intense focus and being tired as an interviewer damages the research
-> Also, allows transcription on the same day
Precise recording is important - ensure it is recording throughout, ensure the microphone is picking up good quality sound
Relying on written notes compromises the detail the interviewer can capture
-> However, do keep note of important things to focus on in analysis
Ensure consent for being recorded has been given, as well as the interview
Locations - safe and comfortable for both
Quiet as possible, a table for recording equipment, private locations for anonymity
Universities are good, as they have many of these, but there is a disadvantage of using a formal setting, parking accessibility
-> Interviewing people you know is easier to organise and safety is less of a concern
-> If interviewing people you do not know, pick more open locations and bring a safety buddy
If going to the participant’s home, consider the risks of this - also consider cultural expectations if visiting certain spaces
Offer refreshments on arrival and have tissues
Face one another at the same height
Consider if physical barriers are needed
Key considerations of interviews
Sequencing of questions - allowing logical flow and clustering of similar topics - early questions should be less probing, sensitive and direct than later questions
Constructing and wording questions - poorly worded questions can damage rapport and subsequent data collection; pilot questions first
Prompts and probes
Research questions are not interview questions
Social desirability -
-> What are you trying to find with the question?
-> Will it generate useful information?
-> Does this help answer the research question?
-> Are there problematic assumptions embedded in the question? Or any assumptions?
-> What would it feel like to be asked that question?
-> How are participants from different backgrounds feel?
-> Is this question likely to be meaningful? - less meaningful questions generate useless data
Acquaintance interviews (Garton and Copland, 2010) - interviewing someone you know
Enter a dual relationships with that person, which raises additional ethical considerations
Do not pressure someone to participate because you know them, and if new information is disclosed that you did not know, that should remain confidential to the interview unless raised by the friend later
Do not gloss over information that is not new to you - only audio recorded information counts as data
If you are in a hierarchy with this person, be sensitive to coercion issues
Ethic committees often require information about pre-existing relationships
Interviewees
Strangers - do not have a dual-relationship but rapport is more difficult, and having in-depth or passionate conversation is harder
These are priorities in interviews - make sure the participant is given more time in this situation
Across difference - match the characteristics of participant and interviewer - easy for large scale research, but not for small-scale issues
By interviewing participants that we do not have matched experiences with, we require caution and sensitivity - allow appropriate communication and acknowledge lack of understanding
Power in interviews - relationship is typically hierarchical, but can be challenged with empathic interviewing, but researchers should be aware of this bias such as being perceived as the expert
Interviewing people who occupy societal positions of greater or lesser power than you - complicates the power relationship
Have to ensure they do not dominate the interview in unhelpful ways if you are vulnerable; read about other research experiences and pre-plan managing the dynamic
Do not limit samples because of this
Participant distress - manage it by acknowledging it - allow them to express it in the context of the interview, but do back off and return to it later
Interviewing vulnerable people