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New Globalisation Content - Aid, Trade, Industrialisation etc (Post…

- - - - ODA can be given straight to a developing country
        
        Bilateral aid
      - Or to multilateral org
        
        E.g EU, UN, WB and EU aid programmes
        
        Multilateral aid
  - - - Donor country might also specify that the money be paid to one of its own companies to carry out a specific project, e.g building a road or improving infrastructure
      - Might also be subject to CONDITIONALITY
        
        Will only be given if the recipient country abides by specific conditions
        
        Aid might be cancelled if the economy cannot be reformed within developing countries
  - - - In 2007, Cuba provided more medical personnel to the developing world than all of G8 combined (graduation)
        
        CUBA HAS 42,000 WORKERS IN INTERNATIONAL COLLABS IN 103 DIFFERENT COUNTRIES
    - - This country used some of its oil wealth to give aid to South American governments (as an alternative to the WASHINGTON CONSENSUS), based on breaking all ties with IGOs
    - - Arab countries are also important donors of aid, usually to poorer Arab countries and to Islamic countries
  - - - Takes away their own initiative
      - And their ability to help themselves
      - Countries are poor because of their own failings (e.g corruption or laziness)
      - Giving countries aid does not help them or motivate them to over come these failings
    - - (Becken = West = Western Germany) Bauer
        
        The main argument for aid is that it supplies what developing countries do not have
        
        Aid could not be necessary for development
        
        Western countries did not receive aid from other countries when they were developing
        
        Bauer suggested that aid implied that the Third World was incapable of achieving what the West already had
  - - - Aid is conditional, as it nearly always comes with strings attached
        
        It is one way in which rich countries can exercise their power over the poorer ones
        
        Therefore it is a form of imperialism
      - They regard the claim made by Western gov that aid helps the South as HYPOCRITICAL
      - Most aid does not alleviate poverty (as it isn't meant to), its real purpose is to strengthen a system which damages the interests of the poor
        
        A lot of aid goes to countries who are strategic to the donor country, and who arguably do not require it
  - - - Developed world would provide aid in the form of capital / tech as a way of helping the nations who were behind on the road to prosperity / mass consumption
        
        Sachs (isaac)
        
        Suggests that a big push of large-scale and focused aid to lift developing countries out of poverty
    - - Suggests that aid has added 1% to the annual growth rate of the countries within the "BOTTOM BILLION"
        
        Without this aid, countries would have been slightly poorer, and that aid has prevented this situation from being a lot worse as a whole
    - - Third World countries are responsible for their own poverty
        
        But, it is chance that leads to an individual being born in the Third World rather than the North, and a person born in poverty in Africa does not have the same opportunities in life as a person in the North
  - - - Mod theory was popular at this time, and allowed people to believe that if they were helped economically, these countries would develop quickly and begin to catch up with the rest of the rich world
        
        Interest was placed on these loans, but the Third World countries took the money, thinking that the economic growth would allow them to pay back the loan regardless of the interest
        
        Although, due to corruption, a lot of money went to the dictators, and a lot was spent on armies, but some development did occur
        
        A lot of countries went into debt because of the recession in the 80s, which meant that they had to borrow even more money to pay off the earlier loans
  - - - Debt also created problems for the North, and that action on debt was in the interests of the North, and being desirable ethically
- - - - Coffee = 70% of its exports
      - Burundi only receive a tiny proportion of what they make from the crops, TNCs take a lot of money from the Burundian farmers
      - Countries like Burundi are vulnerable because
        
        Prices fluctuate due to supply and demand
        
        Changing tastes and fashions in the North can affect demand
        
        Crops are vulnerable to severe weather conditions and disease
    - - Opposed to the idea
        
        It interferes with the operation of the market and suggest that it is FREE TRADE AND NOT FAIR TRADE, which will reduce poverty and improve living standards
        
        It is UNFAIR, it gives privileges to the relatively small number of producers who meet criteria to take part in these schemes
  - - - Chinese goods have become more available within African markets and consumer goods such as mobile phones have become cheaper and a lot more accessible
  - - - In the 70s, the world cocoa price fell, and a lot of Ghanian farmers switched crops so they could feed themselves or sell to others locally because they could not earn enough from growing cocoa
  - - - When under colonialism, the economies of the colonies were used for the benefit the colonial power, by providing primary products (raw mats and cash crops)
    - - FREE TRADE IS FUNDAMENTAL
      - TRADE LIBERALISATION
        
        Opening of national markets to international competition
        
        Ensures that those who can produce goods for when there is a market, and at good enough prices, will often succeed with their ventures
        
        Also includes the removal of protectionist policies from the developed world
        
        Tariffs on goods imported the developing side of the world
  - - - But cannot sell at a price which brings them reasonable income
        
        Price of cotton is brought down by subsidies provided by the US government , given to its cotton farmers (US cotton farmers)
    - - Mali is not able to afford to subsidise its own farmers, as Malian cotton is hard to find anywhere
      - People across Africa wear imported clothing compared to wearing clothes locally made with local cloth
      - The World Trade Organisation decided in 2004 that the US needs to reform its cotton subsidies, still not happened by 2012 (channel ORANGE)
        
        West African farmers lose around $250 MILLION A YEAR DUE TO THESE SUBSIDIES
- - - - Mainly as a response to the realisation of the difficulties associated with breaking into the markets of the developed world
    - - In competition with imports from the developed world
        
        Involved the state setting up industries, and protecting them by placing high tariffs or even complete bans on specific imported goods
    - - Mexico
      - Argentina
      - India
        
        Has its own car industry
        
        Producing the ambassador car for sale within India rather being an exported item (protection from foreign competition)
    - - The savings from domestic production of goods were often balanced by the costs of importing the necessary raw materials
        
        Hewitt
  - - - Happened here, as a country that produces goods cheaply and succeeded in marketing them within the developed world
      - Influenced other countries to do a similar thing (the "Asian Tigers")
        
        Also known as the Newly Industrialising Countries (NICs)
        
        These NICs protected their industries in the early stages and development states gave support to companies within these countries
        
        However, success of Japan makes it harder other countries to succeed, as the world market is already under the control of already existing developed countries
  - - - A lot of countries have concentrated on agriculture and not industry, but they treat agriculture as an industry in order to increase production + meet expectations of Western consumers / supermarkets
        
        Production and exports are controlled by TNCs which regulate these (e.g UNITED FRUIT)
        
        The green revolution
        
        Based on new high-yield varieties and enabled production to increase extraordinarily
        
        Requires greater use of environmentally harmful fertilisers and pesticides
  - - - E.g adoption of the mobile phone without previous widespread use of landline telephones, and of solar-power tablets + laptop computers without using desktops
  - - - Formal / Informal sector employment for Gambians
      - Local farmers benefit from selling their produce to hotels
      - Tourists bring in and spend money
    - - Environmental damage (e.g to the beaches)
      - Presence of wealthy tourists can bring begging and prostitution (e.g sex crimes within the Gambia)
      - Tourists can act in culturally insensitive ways
- - - - Cities provide labour force concentrated within one place for factories and businesses
        
        Also important in promoting cultural changes, as it removes people from the countryside, and places them in the city, to expose them to western values
  - - - The housing is temporary and often of low quality, but a lot of the time permanent features are implemented, as residents work together to arrange resources to put in place
  - - - People move from rural area to a town, to a city, and then to the developed world
      - Migration can be seasonal
        
        Migrants often have close relationships with rural family members, and often return home to help with harvest
  - - - Companies who look for profit often have no interest in giving services to people who cannot pay for them
        
        The poor people often buy water from vendors because of this
- - - - Coined the term "sustainable development"
  - - - E.g China has very large reserves of coal and will use this to meet the needs of the population, regardless of its contribution to global warming
      - Green thinking within developed countries can often involve describing people in developing countries that they should want to live the same way as the Western world, and prioritise sustainable development
  - - - North hemisphere
        
        Concerned with issues regarding climate change, deforestation and conserving habitats etc
      - Southern hemisphere
        
        Concerned with the effects of TNCs, uneven trade, and Western consumerism
        
        Pressure to attract investment from TNCs leads to some developing countries to weaken their environmental controls (e.g less control regarding pollution allowance)
  - - - Waste from developed countries often ends up in poorer countries (brings pollution and health problems)
  - - - Capitalism could have aided to the environmental problems, but nature is considered to be a "growth machine", means that it will generate solutions for these problems
        
        Essentially suggesting that problems like high-polluting + non-renewable fuels for cars / other transport will be solved as costs rise dramatically, and this creates incentives to develop a lot more environmentally sustainable alternatives
        
        The solutions to these problems are referred to as TECHNOLOGICAL FIXES, and that these problems have roots in social and economic contexts, so a simple "fix" would be too complex for these sorts of issues
    - - Think that poverty leads poor people in developing countries to degrade the environment
      - Poor people will often take the short term success route
    - - The people whose damage to the env that needs the most curbing are the wealthiest people on the planet, as they consume a far greater share of resources + generate more waste compared to poor people
      - Exploitation of the developing world's resources is to benefit the consumers of the North
        
        Population is not the real issue, but the normalised amount for a single person to consume
- - - - "New wars"
        
        They appear to be local, but the involve global "shadow"
        
        Economies, global networks (e.g arms trade, diamonds = Sierra Leone)
        
        Traits of "new wars"
        
        Civil wars
        
        Civilians are targeted
        
        Globalised war economy
    - - Ayoob (oob)
        
        Civil wars are part of the process of creating modern states, medieval and early modern Europe experienced similar wars
        
        Civil wars become less common as countries become more modern, and peace comes as a result of free trade and democracy
      - Duffield (field)
        
        New wars in the context of rapid globalisation, increased inequalities and excluded many in developing nations from its benefits
    - - Groups within countries not benefiting from globalisation or development
      - Weak state institutions, state ceases to be able to provide social goods, and less able to resist challenges (e.g rebellions)
      - Presence of young men who do not see a future for themselves
    - - Suggested that it is better to let wars run their course
        
        Eventually will end with a resolution of political conflict and with peace, and that an intervention could prevent the war from coming to a "natural" end
- - - - In 2014, remittances to developing countries came to $436 billion
  - - - Education is important for the process of development
      - Higher education is essential to train future political leaders
      - The level of ed required is linked to the country's stage of economic growth
    - - Education is a for of CULTURAL IMPERIALISM, imposing Western values
      - Education was one of the main ways that colonial powers exercised control over their colonies
- - - - 207 million cases globally - 90% of these were in Africa
      - Many victims of this are children under 5
  - - - Expect health patterns in developing countriesto follow those of the developed world in the past
        
        These countries have not yet entered a epidemiologic transition
        
        During this transition, infectious diseases are less widespread, life expectancy increasing, and child mortality rate increases
    - - There is no reason to suggest that today's developing countries can follow the path of the rich world
    - - The gap in health between developed and developing countries is due the relationships that exist between them
- - - - Educated women do not need to have children for status
      - More likely to be able to work to support their children
      - Better able to look after the health of their children
- - - - Reasons put forward because of this idea
        
        Women are less likely able to swim
        
        Women often try to ensure that their kids are safe before themselves
        
        Men more likely to be away from home
  - - - Child brides have double the pregnancy death rate of women in their 20s
      - Being forced into an early marriage creates a life time of poverty
  - - - E.g the ed of girls is seen as threatening by Islamic fundamentalists and led to events such as attempted assassination of Malala
  - - - The idea of the nuclear family as the main family type suitable for mod society, with husbands and wives having distinguished roles in the household
      - Leonard
        
        Suggests that this was a very masc persp oif what it is like to be modern as a society
    - - Focus is on relationships between countries, instead of social groups
    - - Boserup states that these measures need to be extended to include women, e.g bringing them into paid work so that they can benefit from modernisation
    - - Mod process was benign, attention needs to be paid to the ways in which women were exploited within the global capitalist system
    - - Draw attention to a new form of exploitation, which they argue shows how the global spread of capitalism requires the exploitation of women
  - - - This "deficit" is created as the women who work in developed countries in dual-earner families are unable to look after their children due to the demands of their job, so they employ these women from developing countries to look after their children for them
        
        The use of cheap labour internationally eases this situation for the developed world women, but also creates a similar situation in the developing countries, as women are working abroad and this leaves gaps in the country ("missing women")
- - - - 60% of its pop (200 million peoople) are under the age of 25
    - - But youth unemployment is a large issue
  - - - Majority of this aid went to health, ed and farming