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Animal Husbandry - Coggle Diagram

- - - - HILL
        
        mountainous and rugged areas
        
        Highlands, Welsh Mountains, Lakes
        
        breeds
        
        characteristics
        
        hardy
        
        high maternal instincts
        
        self sufficient
        
        low fertility rate (low litter size)
        
        small size (~35-50kg)
        
        minimal input
        
        Scottish blackface
        
        swaledale
        
        welsh mountain
        
        Lleyn
        
        rough fell
        
        north country cheviot
        
        south country cheviot
        
        clun forest
        
        kerry hill
        
        exmoor horn
        
        produces
        
        purebred replacements (ewe) for hill farms
        
        male lambs/older ewes sold to upland or lowland farms for further breeding or fattening
      - UPLAND
        
        moorland and rolling hills
        
        pennines, borders of scotland
        
        breeds
        
        crossbred ewes
        
        long wool rams x draft ewes (not fit for hills anymore) produce halfbred ewes, upland ewes, store lambs and finished lambs for meat
        
        typically a mix between hill breeds and larger more productive lambs
        
        eg. mule sheep - swaledale x blue faced Leicester cross
        
        HALFBREDS aka MULES
        
        cannot breed down - must cross again
        
        varied location
        
        features
        
        moderate body size (~60-80kg)
        
        large litter size
        
        good milk
        
        fast growth
        
        good mothering
        
        HETEROSIS - best of both
        
        breeds
        
        Scottish mule
        
        scottish halfbred
        
        welsh halfbred
        
        north country mule
        
        greyface
        
        masham
        
        characteristics
        
        higher fertility than hill sheep
        
        more productive
        
        better meat quality than pure hill breeds
        
        bigger frame (~80kg)
        
        larger litter size (~2)
        
        fast growth
        
        good milk production
        
        teeswater
        
        border leicester
        
        Wensleydale
        
        blue faced leicester
        
        produces
        
        ewes sold to lowland farms for commercial lamb production
        
        wether lambs and non breeding ewes fattened for meat
      - LOWLAND
        
        found in fertile lowland areas with better grass growth
        
        breeds
        
        terminal sire breeds
        
        texel (netherlands)
        
        suffolk
        
        charollais (france)
        
        Oxford down
        
        Hampshire down
        
        Beltex (Belgium)
        
        produce
        
        fast growing lambs for slaughter
        
        characteristics
        
        high growth rates
        
        good carcass quality
        
        meat production efficiency
        
        large size (~80kg)
        
        medium litter size
        
        less hardy
        
        lambs sold for meat production are typically finished between 3-6 months of age
        
        halfbred ewes and upland ewes (UPLAND) crossed with down rams (LOWLAND) to produce finished lambs for meat
        
        down rams x down ewes also produce finished lambs for meat
      - SCHEMATIC
        
        Hill
        
        Pure Breed Hill Flocks
        
        replacement within the flock
        
        Draft Ewes (not fit for hills)
        
        Store Lambs (weaned and kept until sale)
        
        Finished Lambs for Meat
        
        Upland
        
        Longwool Ramb
        
        CROSSBREED
        
        Halfbred Ewes
        
        Upland Ewes
        
        Lowland/Down
        
        Down Rams
        
        Down Ewes
    - - closed pure breed flocks
      - crossbred flocks
      - store lambs
      - crofting
        
        sharing of animal grazing area
      - direct hill/upland x terminal sire lamb production
    - - SHEEP FACTS
        
        oestrus cycle ~17 days (short day breeders)
        
        tups left in for typically 2 cycles
        
        not too long so lambing is shorter
        
        gestation length 147 days
        
        scanning: 45-90 days
        
        weaning 12-16 weeks (target 100 days)
        
        lowland sheep have a wider breeding period to hill
        
        birth-slaughter
        
        4 months target for fat lambs
        
        9 months short keep store lambs
        
        12 months long keep store lambs
      - TUPPING
        
        short day breeders (autumn)
        
        seasonally polyoestrus
        
        increasing darkness
        
        increasing melatonin
        
        increasing GnRH release
        
        return to cyclicality (females)
        
        increased testes size & sperm production (males)
        
        can breed out of season with manipulation
        
        mountain/hill breeds - peak fertility October/November/december
        
        terminal sires - longer breeding season (Dorsets can breed all year round)
        
        raddles/keel paint
        
        tup:ewe ratios
        
        1:50 ratio for tups
        
        1:20 ratio for tub lambs or non-synchronised single sire groups
        
        1:10 for synchronised ewes
        
        reproductive targets
        
        BCS at tupping (scale 1-5)
        
        2.5 - 3 hill
        
        3.5 lowland
        
        tupping period: 35 days (2 cycles)
        
        conception rate: 90%
        
        barren rate: 2%
        
        scanning %
        
        lowland: 200-220%
        
        some farmers dont want triplets
        
        hill: 120%
        
        prefer twins as lambs are smaller - easier lambing
        
        birth - 1st mating = 18 months (if lambing as a gimmer) / = 7months (if lambing as a ewe lamb
        
        EWES AT TUPPING TIME
        
        optimum performance = at 3-3.5
        
        <2BCS = reduced performace
        
        correct trace element deficiencies
        
        flushing
        
        increase plane of nutrition 3wks prior to tupping
        
        increase ovulation rates
        
        more likely to have twins/triplets
        
        avoid red clover (phytoestrogens) around tupping, caution of brassicas - goitrogens
      - BCS
        
        score 1
        
        vertical and horizontal processes are prominent and sharp
        
        fingers can be pushed easily below the transverse
        
        each process can be felt
        
        loin is thin with no fat cover
        
        score 2
        
        vertical processes are prominent but smooth
        
        individual processes are felt only as corrugations
        
        horizontal processes are smooth and rounded but it is still possible to press fingers under
        
        loin muscle is a moderate depth but with little fat cover
        
        score 3
        
        vertical processes are smooth and rounded - bone is only felt with pressure
        
        horizontal processes are also smooth and well covered
        
        hard pressure is required with the fingers to find the ends of horizontal processes
        
        loin muscle is full and with a moderate fat cover
        
        score 4
        
        vertical processes are only detectable as a line
        
        ends of the horizontal processes cannot be felt
        
        loin muscles are full and rounded, with thick covering of fat
        
        score 5
        
        vertical and transverse processes cannot be detected even with pressure
        
        dimple in fat layers where processes should be
        
        loin muscles very full and covered with very thick fat
    - - IDENTIFICATION
        
        COUNTY PARISH HOLDING number required to have sheep/goats
        
        all sheep/goats must have an official identifier applied to them
        
        by six months of age if housed overnight
        
        by nine months of age if not housed overnight
        
        or before they leave the holding (at any age)
        
        below 12mo a single 'flock' ear tag is permissible
        
        above 12 months of age two identifiers, one of which must be an ear tag, is required, and these must be individual identifiers
        
        two ear tags or one ear tag plus an EID bolus, a pastern band (EID or non-EID) or a tattoo
        
        All sheep must have an EID
      - LAMB MANAGEMENT PROCEDURES
        
        tailing
        
        ringing can be carried out below 7 days of age
        
        no short tail docking of sheep unless sufficient tail is retained to cover the vulva in the case of female sheep and anus in case of male sheep
        
        tail docking should be carried out only If failure to do so would lead to subsequent welfare problems because of dirty tails/potential fly strike
        
        castration
        
        ringing - aged not more than 7 days
        
        must not be performed on lambs until the ewe/lamb bond has become established
        
        only a veterinary surgeon may castrate a lamb which has reached the age of three months
  - - - TARGET SLAUGHTER WEIGHT = 45KG LIVEWEIGHT
      - CARCASE VALUATION
        
        CONSISTENCY IS KEY
        
        size
        
        fat
        
        deviation = penalties
        
        weights
        
        supermarkets = 16-21kg carcase weight
        
        local butchers = 16-25kg carcase weight
        
        exports = 9-21kg carcase
        
        target is R3L or better (91.52% saleable cuts, 7.44% fat trim, 1.04% bones and waste)
        
        54.7% hit target
        
        19.8% are too fat
        
        25.5% are poor conformation
        
        price varies with supply/demand
        
        peak at easter
        
        trough in summer
        
        DECREASED CARCASS VALUE/PROFITABILITY
        
        fuel price variation
        
        variable cost variation (eg. cost of straw)
        
        labour
        
        disease
        
        losses due to trimming/condemnation
        
        abcesses
        
        bruising
        
        arthritis
        
        t. ovis cysts
        
        dirty carcasses
        
        liver condemnations
        
        f hepatica
        
        t hydatigena
        
        e granulosus
        
        abscesses
        
        vaccination and injection sites are very important to manage
        
        veterinary role
        
        educating farmers on good injection technique
        
        inject where possible into low value bits of animal
        
        control of dog-sheep tapeworms
        
        control of liver fluke
        
        control of PGE (parasitic gastroenteritis)
    - - costs more to shear than to sell
    - - buildings?
      - fuel - driving between fields
      - labour
      - disease
      - feed
        
        seasonality of feed availabilitiy
        
        grazed grass is cheapest (50% cost of conserved forage)
        
        home produced conserved forage is usually much cheaper than purchased feed
        
        grass growth
        
        early lambing requires higher feed costs - lambs must be sold when prices are high
        
        later lambing - feed costs are lower (met with grass alone)
        
        haymaking season is may-august, grass growth is the best
        
        deal with gaps
        
        conserve forage when in excess to feed when in deficit
        
        move lambing, sale dates etc. to align supply and demand curves better
        
        move sheep to grazing ensewhere
        
        use adipose reserves in the animals to cover gaps
        
        grow cover crops to provide forage when grass isn't available
      - shearing
      - INCOME
        
        lamb price
        
        cull ewe price
        
        subsidies
        
        used to get paid a subsidy per head of sheep (until 2005)
        
        subsidies replaced buy single farm payments
        
        by 2024 payments will be halved
        
        by 2028 will be phased out completely
        
        grants replacing single farm placements
        
        Environmental Land Management grants
        
        Animal Health and Welfare Pathways
        
        provision of public goods eg. carbon capture, maintaining heritage etc.
  - - - 2/3 adult bodyweight at tupping
      - expect a higher barren rate (20%)
      - should lamb down at 80% adult bodyweight
      - reach puberty in response to seasonal change and bodyweight
    - - MOTs
        
        should receive a pre-breeding inspection 10wks. pre tupping
        
        replacement rams = quarantine period
        
        criteria
        
        should not be lame
        
        check toes, locomotion, legs, feet
        
        good body condition (3.5-4)
        
        lose a lot of condition during tupping
        
        testes
        
        two even testes
        
        good testicular tone
        
        measure and check firmness with no lumps or bumps
        
        minimum scrotal circumference of 30-36 cm depending on breed
        
        teetj
        
        check for under or overshot jaw, gaps and molar abscesses
        
        treat
        
        check vaccinations are to date
        
        clostridia
        
        pasteurella
        
        parasites
        
        lameness
        
        shearing?
      - RAMS AT TUPPING TIME
        
        target: 3.5 - 4 at tupping
  - - - caution not to overfeed -> small lambs
    - - M +/- 10% is a good rule of thumb
    - - enables farmers to know number of lambs per ewe
        
        can feed accordingly
      - target barren =<2% (20% in ewe lambs)
    - - 70% of lamb growth occurs in the last 6 weeks of gestation
      - energy requirements of the ewe increase rapidly in the last six weeks
      - ewe under nutrition
        
        pregnancy toxaemia
        
        low birthweight
        
        low brown fat levels
      - nutrition during late pregnancy impacts on milk production and colostrum quality
        
        mammary gland development occurs in the last month of pregnancy
        
        colostrum vital for lamb health
        
        colostrum formation in the last few weeks before lambing
        
        late pregnancy nutrition can have a major impact on neonatal lamb mortality and lamb growth
  - - - too thin
        
        greater risk of death
        
        uterine inertia
        
        twin lamb disease
        
        mastitis
      - too fat
        
        dystocia
        
        poorer ewe/lamb bonding
        
        prolapse
        
        twin lamb disease
    - - INDOOR
        
        advantages
        
        sheep and shepherd protected from inclement weather
        
        less likely to lose lambs to hypothermia
        
        closer supervision possible
        
        enables early lambing
        
        allows pasture growth/recovery
        
        disadvantages
        
        higher labour requirement
        
        increased infectious disease risk
        
        must provide feed, bedding, water
      - OUTDOOR
        
        advantages
        
        lower labour requirement
        
        less infectious disease risk
        
        lower capital expenditure
        
        lower fixed costs
        
        disadvantages
        
        increased losses from hypothermia/starvation
        
        increased losses from dystocia?
        
        limited to later lambing flocks
        
        must have suffiient pasture available
  - - - major cause of lost productivity in UK flocks
      - 5% is achievable
        
        10-25% may occur
      - first two days are critical
      - Common Causes of Neonatal Mortality
        
        dystocia
        
        solved by correct intervention, experience, husbandry
        
        hypothermia
        
        affected by
        
        colostrum
        
        weather
        
        maternal bond
        
        avoidance of weak lambs
        
        starvation
        
        hypoglycaemia
        
        colostrum
        
        avoiding weak lambs
        
        maternal bond
        
        watery mouth disease
        
        septicaemia colibacillosis
        
        omphalophlebitis
        
        clostridial disease
        
        predation
      - Periparturient Ewe Mortality
        
        Dysticua
        
        uterine prolapse
        
        metritis
        
        mastitis
        
        clostridial disease
        
        hypomagnesaemia
        
        leads to seizing
- - - - ease of animal management
        
        animal checks
        
        human comfort
      - reduce morbidity and mortality
        
        newborn calves
        
        metabolic diseases
      - increases animal productivity
        
        beef growth rates higher indoors
      - A means of managing environmental impact of dense animal population
        
        poaching - grass destruction
    - - Body space
      - head space
      - lunge space
        
        very important
        
        needed for the cow to get up
        
        if nit sufficient cow will not use cubicle
        
        can be up to half a metre
        
        can be problematic if a wall is directly in front of cubicle
    - - lying area
        
        loose yard
        
        straw
        
        wood
        
        chip
        
        sand
        
        ADVANTAGES
        
        comfort
        
        able to express normal behaviour
        
        low risk of injury on building and lying surface
        
        DISADVANTAGE
        
        mastitis risk
        
        teat treating injuries
        
        straw expensive
        
        compost pack
        
        expensive
        
        reduces pathogen risk
        
        warmth during winter
        
        self sustaining
        
        tie stalls
        
        BANNED IN UK
        
        ADVANTAGES
        
        similar to cubicles
        
        less nbullying
        
        less mastitis and infectious disease?
        
        DISADVANTAGES
        
        similar to cubicles
        
        less ability to express normal behaviour
        
        slats
        
        cublicles (freestalls)
        
        ADVANTAGES
        
        cheaper for bedding
        
        more cows per building
        
        cows cleaner, less mastitis risk
        
        DISADVANTAGES
        
        more complex
        
        capital investment
        
        more variable comfort
        
        less able to express normal behaviour
        
        increased lameness and injury risk
        
        IF THE COWS DON’T LIKE THEM THEY WILL NOT USE THEM
        
        Cow trainer - discourages urination/defecation in lying space
        
        components of a cubicle
        
        partitions
        
        brisket locator
        
        neck rails
        
        curb
        
        stall base
        
        bedding (sand)
      - walking surfaces
        
        concrete
        
        slatted
        
        rubber
        
        on top of concrete
        
        preferred
    - - Feed
        
        enough space for all animals to feed at one time
        
        ideally 75cm feed space per Holstein cow
        
        barrier to minimise sideways movements and displacements 9partitions) and overstretching
        
        feeder design and management minimising ‘reach’ of the animals (if they have to work too hard they wont eat)
        
        look for empty bits on the feed table
        
        eg. Empty bits by doors = preference for fresh air etc
        
        check for evidence of sorting
        
        feeder designs
        
        barrier
        
        single rail
        
        in theory good but if height wrong cows will try to escape
        
        tombstone
        
        yolks
        
        aka headlocks
        
        can lock the cows in
        
        good for mass vet
        
        manger
        
        ring feeder
        
        self feed (silage face)
        
        good but wasteful
        
        consider when they eat they push the feed away
      - Water
        
        enough space for 10% herd to drink at once
        
        eg. 5-10cm water space per Holstein cow
        
        one per 20 cows, well spread
        
        otherwise bottlenecks can be an issue
        
        pressure guarantees 20l/min
        
        water troughs that are
        
        easily cleaned
        
        large capacity to provide for times of peak intake eg. following milking
        
        appropriate flow rate
        
        accessible and kept free of ice
        
        with palatable water
        
        clean at least weekly or more if necessary
        
        goldfish??????
      - Light
        
        enough light for cows and farmers
        
        200 lux on cow level everywhere in the bard
        
        ideal is 16-18 hours daylight
        
        where this is not possible use artificial light on a timer
        
        clean the lights/skylights
        
        dry cows don’t need extra light - boost just before calving to increase intake
      - Air
        
        fresh air seeking?
        
        cobwebs and drip marks are a bad sign
        
        if you have cobwebs you have bad air flow
        
        Drip marks mean condensation is not being removed
        
        ventilation
        
        curtains
        
        air tubes
        
        Heat Abatement
        
        shade
        
        space (destocking)
        
        air flow - natural ventilation, fans
        
        removes humid air
        
        increases evaporation
      - Rest
        
        know daily time budgets
        
        roughly
        
        13h lying
        
        5h eating
        
        0.5h drinking
        
        2.5h social interactions
        
        3h other (milking, out pen etc)
        
        cows will forgo eating for lying down
        
        must manage time well! If milking is slow it affects everything else
      - Bedding
        
        sand
        
        doesnt hold pathogens unless contaminated with faeces
        
        easy to manage
        
        chopped straw
        
        sawdust/wood shavings
        
        paper based bedding
        
        alternative
        
        Gypsum
        
        wood bark
        
        lime ash
        
        bedding appropriacy test
        
        knee test
        
        are you prepared to drop to your knees on the bed?
        
        hand rub test
        
        rub the back of your hand on the bed - is it abrasive?
        
        make sure adequate rest times
        
        Minimal bruising, abrasion and injury
        
        hock lesions are a big problem
        
        5 different places
        
        inside
        
        outside
        
        point at back
        
        calcaneus
        
        side
        
        stays clean and dry
        
        Min bacterial growth
        
        avoid mastitis
        
        comfort
        
        cushioned
        
        clean/dry
        
        cool
        
        capacity
        
        calm
        
        standing surfaces
        
        New concrete can have sharp projections and caustic properties
        
        tamped concrete (slight ridges)
        
        imprinted (hexagon, squares, ridges)
        
        rubber
        
        old concrete may need management
        
        grooved
        
        scabbled (roughened)
        
        planed
        
        resurfaced
        
        rubber
        
        resin
        
        bitumen
        
        behaviours
        
        perching
        
        direct link with lameness
        
        diagnoal standing or luing
        
        lying backwards
        
        restless/leg back
        
        cannot get comfortable, fidgeting
        
        kneeling
        
        hesitates because difficult to get up
        
        dog sitting
        
        struggles to get up
        
        alternate occupancy
      - Space
        
        free access to food, water and bed
        
        check stocking density
        
        one bed per cow (+ if possible)
        
        wide passages
        
        space for at least two cows to pass behind the other
      - Comfort
        
        brushes
        
        detect potential welfare issues: use brushes less when:
        
        lame
        
        moderately lame
        
        suffering from metritis
        
        use brushes more post parturition and milking
        
        value the addition of a mechanical brush
        
        increase in time spent scratching of 508% after mechanical brush added
        
        nearly all utilise
        
        enrichment in general!
        
        can see happy lines on cows (horizontal lines on side of cow)
    - - if they can groom that is good
      - slippy floor means they wont lift a leg up etc.
    - - loose housed, slats, rubber
      - densely stocked (not a mastitis risk) - useful in cold climates
    - - upwind of adults
      - ssight/touch of another
      - space to turnaround, lie
      - group gradually with increasing age *and immunity)
      - maximum of 30 in shared airpace
      - work for social contact with another, more so for full body contact in comparison to head contact only
      - make long lasting social relayionships
      - individually housed calves
        
        are more fearful of unfamiliar calves
        
        react more to restrains
        
        are less confident
      - twin housing
        
        increases
        
        concentrate intake
        
        frequency of meals
        
        weaning weight
        
        ability to cope with novelty
        
        weaning transition
    - - poor ventilation
        
        resp sdisease
        
        particularly cows
      - dirty floors and bedding
        
        slurry heel (cattle0
        
        interdigital dermatitis (cattle)
        
        mastitis
      - inappropriate floor surfaces
        
        white line separation
        
        slips and falls
        
        Rushing cows
        
        poor oestrus expression
      - overstickign
        
        infectious disease spread more easily
      - feeders and troughs
        
        fouled water
        
        competition at feed space
        
        metabolic disease - acidosis and ketosis
      - INDICATORS
        
        low ears
        
        rumen is really empty
        
        dinosaur spine (repeated contact with metal causes swelling)
        
        injuries
        
        foot resting
        
        really dirty
        
        lesions on the back
        
        sole ulcers
        
        prolonged standing time
        
        milking management needed
        
        white line separation
        
        mechanical injuries
        
        twisting
        
        infection
        
        waiting cows
  - - - MILK YIELD
        
        breeding
        
        feeding
        
        should be 10% more beds than cows
      - FIXED COSTS AND VARIABLE COSTS
        
        fixed
        
        shed
        
        variable
        
        vet bills
        
        feed purchase
        
        fertiliser
      - EFFICIENCY
        
        lifespan
        
        longer lived cows are more productive (reduces fixed cost of rearing heifers)
        
        calving interval
        
        endemic disease
        
        undermines efficiency of unit
    - - LACTATION PERIOD
        
        the time from calving until cow is dried off
        
        time during cwhich cow is producing milk
        
        higher yield dilutes amount of colostrum (want low yield to start before increasign
        
        target
        
        300 to 305 days (43 weeks)
        
        range
        
        265-340 days (38-49 weeks)
        
        length of the lactation period depends on the open period and level of production
        
        some drive for shorter dry period
        
        subsequent peak is less extreme and less negative energy balance
        
        recovery of dry period is insufficient
        
        can lead to severe mastitis
      - OPEN PERIOD
        
        time from calving to reconception
        
        length depends on the voluntary waiting period and the breeding period and is the ONLY period affected by our influence
        
        targe - mean of 85 days (12wks)
        
        range - 45 - 120 days (7-17 wks)
        
        pregnancy - 280-2285 days (fixed)
      - CULLING OR REPLACEMENT RATE
        
        percentage of cows culled per year
        
        usually 25-30% of the herd
        
        implies that at least 25-30% heifers have to brought into a herd every year to maintain herd size
        
        reason
        
        empty
        
        lame
        
        udder health
      - CALVING INTERVAL
        
        number of days between each calving
        
        optimal 365 - one calf per year
        
        average has increased over 30 years
        
        increased calving interval = loss for farmer
    - - modern herd has longer lactation length
      - modern herd has longer calving interval
      - traditional herd has fewer days to first oestrus
      - traditional herd has significantly fewer days to first insemination
      - modern herd has moderately higher replacement rate
      - larger herds tend to have lower productivity per cow
    - - calving interval
        
        period of time between one calving and the next
      - conception rate
        
        number of pregnancies per service or insemination
      - pregnancy rate
        
        number of pregnancies per number of eligible cows
        
        more accurate way of defining fertility rate - includes cows in heat
      - days to first service
        
        interval between calving and first service/AI
      - non return rate
        
        proportion of inseminated cows which are not reinseminated after a set period of time
      - in calf rate
        
        proportion of cows intended for re breeding that are in calf 6 weeks or 100 days after the start date of the breeding season
      - dystocia
        
        difficult calving
      - followers
        
        non-lactating dairy cattle in a herd
      - heifer
        
        young cow, 1-3 years old
      - dry cows
        
        pregnant cows, last 6-8w of pregnancy
      - fresh cows
        
        cows that have recently calved
      - parlour
        
        milking shed
      - synchronisation
        
        bringing a large number of cows into oestrus at the same time using external hormones
    - - Milking cows
        
        fresh cows
        
        fresh heifers
        
        main herd
        
        stale cows
      - colostrum growp
      - sick/mastitis/AB cows
      - dry cows
        
        far off
        
        close up group
      - heifers
        
        milk fed
        
        weaned
        
        breeding
        
        pre-calving
        
        milking
    - - cleanliness is key
      - should be close to dairy staff house
      - close to milking parlour
      - prone to becoming poached
      - should not have barbed wire or electric fencing
      - how long to leave the calves with the dam for?
        
        massively dependent on individual farm practive
        
        longer with mum = better start to life = higher productivity
        
        separation = less transfer of pathogens BUT mother:calf bond should mean calf only stays with mum so limited pathogen
    - - ADVANTAGES
        
        high genetic merit bulls
        
        easier to transport semen internationally
        
        less inbreeding in herrd
        
        less risk of sexually transmitted diseases
        
        cheaper and safer than buying a high genetic merit bull
        
        can select semen from a range of bulls (beef as well as dairy)
        
        sexed semen available
      - should be 12 hours after oestrus as deposit semen straight into body of uterus past cervix
    - - standing to being ridden is a key indicator of oestrus
      - riding other cows, restless behaviour, raised tail, swollen vulva with mucous discharge, smudged tail paint
      - cows should be bred 12-24h after detection of standing heat
      - AIDS
        
        pedometers/activity monitors
        
        now often part of ear tags
        
        tail paint
        
        rump markers
        
        eg. kamar mount detector
    - - length of oestrus cycle - 21 dyas
      - length of oestrus - 17 hours
      - time of ovulation - 10-15h after the end of oestrus
    - - SYCHRONISATION
        
        (1) intravaginal progesterone delivery device (creates artificial corpus luteum, once removed will break down)
        
        (2) prostaglandin injection to stimulate luteolysis
        
        (3) GnRH injection to stimulate ovulation
      - EMBRYO TRANSFER
        
        increases the number of offspring a genetically important cow can have
        
        usually done with superovulation + non-surgical recovery of eggs + embryos frozen and transferred to a recipient later (7 days after onset of oestrus)
        
        specialised service
    - - HOLSTEIN
        
        quite skinny
        
        not much muscle
        
        very good at producing milk
      - JERSEY
        
        smaller than holstein
        
        massively efficient
        
        but will crash and hard to recover once crashed
      - SHORTHORN
        
        dual purpose breed
        
        roan
      - AYRSHIRE
        
        crossbred with holstein to reintroduce red into black and white
      - GUERNSEY
        
        mot very fertile
        
        struggle with calving interval
    - - majority water (88%)
      - 4% fat
      - protein (3%)
      - lactose (5%)
      - commercial cows average over 8,000 litres per year
      - annual 305 day lactation is about 200 times the peak yield
      - Guernsey and jersey cattle much higher fat. content (5%) so better for cheese, butter and ice cream
      - adult Holstein cows weigh about 650kg
        
        cows eat approx 3% of their body weight in DRY MATTER
      - late lactation cows tend to have higher milk solids
      - availability of milk has an impact on milk price
        
        milk price is very volatile
        
        want to stimulate farmers to produce overwinter milk
      - PRODUCTION
        
        peak (daily yield) at week 5-7
        
        peak yield = annuual (305 day) milk yield / 200
        
        peak voluntary feed intake at week 10-12
        
        energy balance is very important!!!!
        
        cows are eating less energy than they produce in milk
        
        change in BCS
        
        subjective measure of fat scores
        
        one unit change in BCS is equal to about 90kg body weight
        
        body fat increases 12.5% for every increase in unit in body condition score
        
        BCS markers
        
        savcral ligament
        
        tail head ligament
        
        pins
        
        thurl
        
        short ribs
        
        hooks
        
        2 more items...
        
        one BCS loss (max) tolerable
        
        nadir 30-60 days pp (DIM)
        
        time max loss
        
        30 DIM
        
        time increase body weight 60 DIM
        
        optimum BCS at calving: 2.5-3
        
        BCS nadir: 2.0-2.5
        
        less drop and less bandwidth than in old school farms - but the farmers are still old school
        
        BENEFIT OF A DROP IN BCS
        
        allows for less energy dense feeds to be fed -> less change of upset rumen
        
        typical cow diet has a metabolisable energy level of 10MJ/kg DM-low production to 13MJ/kg high production
        
        feeds vary in composition with maturity, type and fraction used
        
        4 more items...
        
        FACTORS AFFECTING ENERGY BALANCE
        
        genotype
        
        age
        
        body condition
        
        milk yield
        
        feed
        
        grass only feeding systems
        
        low cost
        
        disadvantage
        
        4 more items...
        
        energy protein balance
        
        dry matter intake
        
        specific constituents
    - - Nutrition and Reproduction
        
        feeding level can influence reproductive success and this can be recognised from the cows BCS
        
        cows experiencing large BCS decrease during early lactation can have difficulty getting back into calf
        
        cows that are excessively fat can be more difficult to get back into calf
        
        glucose supporting rations Ian to improve milk yield and can improve reproductive success
        
        high dietary protein levels diets can lead to reduced fertility and can be assessed indirectly through blood urea-nitrogen levels
      - Lactation Period Feeding Systems
        
        feeding for peak yield
        
        the amount of milk produced at peak yield helps set overall lactation yield
        
        a high peak yield leads to a high lactation yield
        
        a high peak yield is promoted by giving a high concentrate allowance during the first 6 weeks of lactation
        
        RISKS
        
        rumen acidosis
        
        high yielding cows are prone to lower reproductive success
        
        buffer feeding
        
        feeding additional energy to high yielding grazing cows, often as maize silage puts brewers grain for 3h indoors pre afternoon milking
        
        increases and balances nutrient intake relative to demand for lactation
        
        usually provided when DMI from pasture is low
      - Late pregnancy feeding system
        
        Lead feeding (steaming up)
        
        increase concentrate feeding during the last 3 wks pregnancy to adapt the rumen flora and stimulate growth of rumen papillae to the switch to a high concentrate ration at the onset of alctation
        
        to reduce the frequency of ketosis and acidosis associated with high levels of grain feeding, although it can increase the risk of milk fever
        
        only effective if you know exactly when calving down occurs
        
        DCAB feeding (DIETARY CATION TO ANION BALANCE)
        
        decreasing the ratio of cations to anions in the feed during the last 3 wks of pregnancy helps minimise the risk of milk fever
        
        encourages the mobilisation of calcium from bone
        
        risk: rations with high anion salt concentrations are unpalatable
      - PARTURITION
        
        HIGH RISK - prevention essential
        
        milk fever
        
        emergency
        
        dystocia
        
        retained fetal membranes
        
        negative energy balance
        
        feed changes: SARA
        
        endometritis
        
        mastitis
        
        displaced abomasum
        
        prolapse
        
        emergency
        
        arteries can break
        
        longer calving interval = lower risk as fewer calves
      - MONITORING FOR PRODUCTION DISEASES
        
        scoring systems
        
        lameness
        
        associated with:
        
        wintertime when housed
        
        poor floor hygiene indoors
        
        long walking distances on hard tracks
        
        inadequate foot care
        
        sharp angular stones on the ground - esp at gateways
        
        assessing lameness
        
        gait scoring
        
        uneven weight bearing on feet
        
        arched back when standing and walking
        
        foot examination
        
        trim
        
        sole ulcers
        
        mechanical lameness
        
        digital dermatitis
        
        heel erosion/slurry heel
        
        infectious lameness
        
        current UK average around 35% - has barely changed
        
        lame cows often produce more milk to start with so no incentives for farmers to cheap
        
        vaginal discharge
        
        BCS
        
        dung
        
        monitoring rumen health
        
        milk fat content >4%
        
        VFA spectrum
        
        fibre content
        
        rumen acidosis
        
        60% lying and ruminating
        
        fecal scoring: consistency, grains and fine present?
        
        fertility
        
        calf health scoring and growth rates
        
        teat scoring and milk quality scoring
        
        clinical scoring to evaluate performance
    - - AHDB - statutory levy board
      - NMR = national milk records
      - Holstein UK - Europes largest independent breed society
    - - increase in milk yield
      - decrease in fertility and longevity
      - decrease in number of breeds
      - decrease in milk price
        
        increase in size of holding
      - increase in required management expertise
      - larger unit size but fewer herds