Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Gender, Ethnicity, Class and Age, Feminism and Religion, Ethnicity and…
Gender, Ethnicity, Class and Age
Feminism and Religion
Feminist Approaches to Religion
Liberal Feminists - Aim for equality within existing religions by removing barriers e.g female priests
Radical Feminists - See most religions as existing for the benefit of men, challenge religion altogether
Marxists Feminists - Emphasise Marxists view that religion acts as the 'opium of the people' compensates women for double exploitation
Mary Daly 1973
Suggests Christianity is a patriarchal myth
She suggests that the Christian story eliminated 'goddess' religions. Argues that Christianity is rooted in male ideals and it embodies women-hating
Simone de Beauvoir 1953
Saw the role of religion in a similar way to Marx - she saw it as oppressive to women
Religion used by the oppressors (men) to control the oppressed group (women)
It serves as a way of compensating women on their second class status. Religion gives women the false beliefs that they will be compensated for their suffering on earth by equality in heaven
El Saadawi 1980 (Muslim Feminist)
Doesn't blame religion for its oppressive influence on women by the patriarchal domination of religion that came with the development of monotheistic religions
These religions drew inspirations from the patriarchal and class societies at the time - Men wrote the scriptures - interpretation on these was male
A02 - 14th Century Catholic Church declared women who treat illness without training = witches
Is religion patriarchal?
Shouldn't be assumed all religions are - changes have been made
Some writers highlight how there are signs of hope developing
Aspects of Islam are positive for women; keeping their family name when married ; veiling as means of ethnic and gender assertiveness not male submission
- Given the patriarchal nature of many religions it's surprising that women are the biggest consumers of religion
- Across Europe religiosity is in decline for both genders but Women are more likely to participate in nearly all faiths interluding NRM's and NAM's - only exception = Islam
- Increased decline of men UK writers predict that by 2028 men will have disappeared from the church altogether
Compared to men, women are more likely to:
- Express greater interest in religion and have a more firm belief in God - Voas 2015
- Have stronger personal faith, commitment and belief in life after death
- Involve themselves in religious rituals and worship
- See private prayer as important and practice it
- Join or involve themselves in NRM's and NAM's - Bruce 1996
Greerly Women as more religious than men
Argues that, before women get marries and have children, their religiosity is not dissimilar to men
However,
- Mother role = caring
- Caring = involved with more religious outlook
- High commitment
Miller and Hoffman - Why are women more religious than men?
Studies have consistently shown that women are more religious than men
- Women more likely express greater interest in religion
- Stronger personal religious commitment
- Attend Church more often
However - Brierley 2006 - 1998-2005 = 51,000 per year but throughout this time women were leaving church at twice the rate of men
Aune et al 2008 - Decline in Church Attendance
Fertility levels - Women have fewer children - older generation lost from the church isn't being replaced
Feminist Values - These began influencing women in the 60s and challenged Christian views about traditional women's roles
Paid Employment - 2/3 women now in the labour market and juggling employment + childcare + housework. Church attendance is the activity which suffers
Family Diversity - Compared to wider society churches include fewer non-traditional families. Modern family forms are under provided for and discouraged by the Church
Sexuality - The church's ambivalence towards sexuality is causing women to leave, feeling that the church requires them to deny of be silent about sexual desire
Linda Woodhead 2005
In attempting to explain the diversity of responses of modern women toward religion, she separates contemporary women into 3 categories
Home centred - women whose priority is their home and family. They tend to be christian
Jugglers - Women who combine home and work. More likely in alternative spirituality (NAMs and NRMs)
Work centred - Who are more likely to follow males patterns of religiosity. Abandoning church as it doesn't fit in with work
Conclusions
- Women seen as more religious across most religions bar Islam
- Male domination within religions is responsible for the patriarchal nature of religion
- BUT - it cannot be generalised that all religions = patriarchal as it may have good benefits for women
- Female church attendance has declined due to life commitment e.g employment and diversity
- Gender: socialisation and roles are responsible for the differences in religiosity between genders
-
Ethnicity and Religion
- An important element of the identity of minority ethnic groups in the UK is their religious faith
- As a result of immigration in the 50s and 60s Britain is now categorised by religious pluralism
Religion and Ethnic Identity
There are significant differences in religiousity within the Asian and African-Caribbean communiteies however some generalisations can be made
- AC were Christian on arrival to the UK but faced racism when they joined existing denominations. AC forms of Christianity have mushroomed over the last 20 years
- Asians who are predominantly Hindu, Sikh and Muslim had no existing places of worship to join. They had to make a collective effort to establish and practice their faith in the UK. Also mushroomed
The English Church Census 2005
- 83% Churchgoers = White, 10% = Black, 7% Ethnic backgrounds
- Non-White church attendance increased by 19% since 1998 - white has dropped by 19%
- Black church attendance 3x proportion of population, 2.6% in 2001 3.8% 2005
- Attendance among Chinese, Korean and Japanese well above proportion in pop 0.8% - 2005 0.4% 2001
- Proportion of non-white churchgoers is highest in London, 44% = Black, 14% = non-white, 42% = white
Charismatic Movements
Religious movements that believe some individuals have the gifts of the holy spirit, e.g healing powers + speak in tongues
- Many AC who sought to establish own church adopted evangelical affiliation to Christianity - stressed belief in personal conversion and the factual accuracy of the Bible, alongside a commitment to seek new converts
Pentecostal Movement
Fundamentalist Christian congregations whos members seek to be filled with the holy spirit
- Such christianity practiced by the Charismatic and Pentecostal movements has grown dramatically over the last decade
- In 2005, The English Church Census found that Pentecostal membership had increased over 30% between 1998-2005
3,500 Churches closed from 2014-2024
The change in the composition of practising Christianity is coming from an increase in ethnic-minorities and Pentecostal Churches
- Evangelical movements have also drawn millions of Africans of Christian churches across Africa
Religious Commitment
Bruce
Research shows the major minority ethnic groups are significantly more religious than the white majority
Similarities can be seen in the younger generations being less religious and the elderly more
But Religious practices such as church attendance is highest in ME groups
-
Gender
Patriarchy and Religion
Most mainstream religions tend to be partriarchal and women and men are rearely treated equally. Evidence of this can be seen in a number of ways:
- Religious Scriptures
- Religious Organisations
- Patriarchal Doctrines
- Places of worship
- The veiling of women
- Woman as polluting, temptresses
- Women have fewer rights than men
Religious Scriptures
These feature the doings of male gods and prophets - usually written + interpreted by men
Stories often reflect anti-female stereotypes e.g Eve and the apple
Religious Organisations
Mainly male dominated - despore more women participating than men. Judaism + Catholicsm forbid women becoming presits
Karen Armstrong 1993 - the exclusion of women as evidence of marginalisation
Even the COE have glass ceiling on level women can hold within clergy - since 2014 allowed to be Bishops
Places of Worship
Often segregate sexes and marginalise women - behind screens or in Islam mensuration women aren't allowed to touch the Quran or enter a mosque
Jean Holm 2001 - describes this as the devaluation of women in religion
Religious Laws and Customs
May give fewer rights than men e.g access to divorce, spouses, dress
Religious influences on cultural norms may lead to unequal treatment - genital mutilation
Many religions legitimise and regulate women's traditional domestic and reproductive role - Catholic church bans abortion and artificial contraception
Woodhead 2002 - argues the exclusion of women from priesthood is evidence of the Catholic Church's unease about the emancipation of women in general
Grace Davie
Men see God as a god of power and control
Women see god more as a god of love, comfort and forgiveness
Sexuality and Religion
Women's bodies + sexuality are felt to be dangerous by many religions - because women menstruate and give birth they are considered to have greater capacity to 'pollute' religious rituals. AO2 = Mosques
Many religious believers argue that their presence may distract men from their more important roles involving worship
Sexuality + Discipline - Turner 1983
Suggests that a disciplinary role with respect to sexuality is central to religion
- Degree of policing the body in religion
- Importance of asceticism (the practice of self discipline in the expression of individual pleasure)
AO2 - Catholic priests practice abstinence. Catholic nuns are married to God
Are all religions Patriarchal
The Egyptian Goddess Iris - patron of women, mothers, magic and the ritual of life
Kail is a Hindu goddess associated with death and destruction. Mother-goddess
Karen Armstrong 1993 - many early religions placed women at the centre - 6,000 years ago many earth mother goddesses and fertility cults existed across Europe. However from about 4,000 years ago and the rise of monotheistic religions saw the establishment of all powerful single male gods
2016 Pew Research Centre report on the Gender Gap in Religion Around the World
Affiliation - 83.4% women afflilated with some sort of religioun or faith group - 79.9% men aflilliated
Attendance - 23/81 nations men and women equal attendance - 30 countries women = more likely than men
Prayer - Christianity = largest gender difference in prayer 61% women prey daily - 51% men
Importance of Religion - Christianity + Islam - equal importance. Judaism in US women = 8% more important
Heaven and hell - Heaven women = more likely by 5% in 15 countries. Hell women = more in 10 countries
The US - 64% Women prey daily - 47% men - highest involvement but also highest gender gap
-
Islamophobia
Muslim and Identity
Islam has become an important and growing marker of identity in Britain
Stigmatised identity - an identity that is undesirable or demeaning, stops an individual or group being fully accepted by society
Young Male Muslims
Growing numbers of young male Muslims in the UK are choosing Islam as a prime marker of identity
Islam and its symbols and values have become central features in building a positive identity which they see as otherwise denied to them by Islamophobia
70% of British Muslims are under 25 - signal long term trends
Mirza et al 2007
Increase in the religiosity and identification with Islam with second and third generation Muslims shown by things like
- Greater wearing of the Hijab
- Greater identification with the worldwide Muslim community
- Growing membership of Islamic political groups
- Growing demands for education, financial and legal arrangements that comply with Sharia law
Suggests the rise in Muslim identity among the young is down to 3 factors
- British FP
- Decline of other sources of identity
- Multicultural policies
Mirza is concerned with the growth of extremism among young Muslims
However much of what she says offers general explanations for the growing assertion of Muslim identity among all young Muslims and provides some explanation for the importance of religion among EM groups
-
Social Class
The Facts
Marxists - religiosity and religious participation should be highest among most deprived social classes (Opium)
Weber's Theodicy of Disprivelidge - religion might appeal most to disadvantaged and marginalised groups
However...
Maduro - suggests religion can be used by the poorest social classes to fight oppression (Liberation Theology)
Despite thoese theories suggesting the greatest appeal of relgion would be to the disadvanatges, in practice:
- Mainstream religions are inclusive - recruit from all socail classes
- Religion is part of the experience of all social classes
- It is hard to make overall satements
Churches and Denominations
Upper and middle classes tend to be over-represented in churches
Established churches are MC dominated - leaders tend to come from mire privileged backgrounds
YouGov 2015
More than 60% people who regularly attend churches were middle classes as opposed to 38% working class
Ashworth and Farthing 2007
Churchgoing in all Christian faiths is largely a MC pursuit. The poorest social groups had the lowest proportion of acceptance
However
Most denominations tend to appeal to the lower middle classes and have higher proportions of WC members
Sects, Cults and the New Age
Sects - seem to gain their strongest support from the most marginal groups - use them as a means of coping with disadvantages
-
Bruce and Heelas 1996 - suggest the new age client cults world affirming new age movements attract affluent members of society - followers are customers who have to spend money, access self improvement
-