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Section 3 - Modern Britain - Coggle Diagram
Section 3 - Modern Britain
Heaths Government
Heath as Leader
Heath had a clear programme of policies for the modernisation of Britain
Had clear developed policies regarding industrial relations and economic modernisation
Had been leader of opposition for 5 years
Was the first elected conservative leader to have been educated at state schools
Came from a different background to the other leaders
He was good at policies but not politics
regarded as too honest for his own good
Seemed well prepared for government
Back bench MPS were determined to force a leadership contest
Margaret Thatcher was a key contender
Policies were generally to the right of Heath and Macmillan
Sympathetic to monetarist and Free-Market policies proposed by Powell
Defeated Heath in 1975
Political and economic Policies
Conservatives held a conference in 1970 to approve a policy programme in order to reform the Manifesto at the next election
tax reform
better law and order
reforms to trade unions
immigration controls
cuts to public spending
the end of "lame duck industries"
Heath still believed in "One Nation Toryism" and the Post War Consensus
Number of reforms during the Heath Premiership
School Leaving age raised to 16
Reorganisation of Local Government
Decimalisation of British Currency
However the administration was dominated by Economy and Industrial Relations
Anthony Barber (The Chancellor) introduced cuts in public spending
Also introduced tax cuts to try and encourage investment
Led to a rapid rise in inflation that was not accompanied by economic growth
Unemployment began to rise
Stagflation began
Government began to involve themselves
Nationalisation of Rolls Royce
Government money poured in to prevent Upper Clyde Shipbuilders going bankrupt
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Seemed to work as unemployment fell to 500,000 from 1Mil
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Industrial Relations and the Miners Strikes
Industrial disputes began at the start of Heaths Premiership
Dockers Strikes
Large pay settlements for dustmen
Postal workers strike
Go slow by powerworkers leading to powercuts
Government responded by bringing in the Industrial Relations act
Similar to Castles proposals in "In Place of Strife"
Heath also abolished the National Board for Prices and Incomes
Set up an Industrial relations court
Provide ballots for strikes and a cooling off period before official strikes began
The policy did not work as expected
Trade Union Congress and Confederation of British Industry were opposed to this
Strikes from Miners, Ambulance Drivers, Firefighters, civil servants, powerworkers, hospital staff and engine drivers
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1972 saw the highest number of days lost in strikes
Heath returned to the policy of trying to manage wage demands with the Passing of the Industry act in 1972
Aimed to involve the government , TUC and CBI in agreeing wages, prices, investment and benefits
Policy was criticised by the right of the party
The Troubles in Northern Ireland; The Sunningdale Agreement
Heath's government inherited huge problems in Northern Ireland
There was an explosion of sectarian violence
British Government was struggling to keep the peace
British forces were seen as an enemy occupying power by Catholics and Nationalists
The situation worsened in January 1972
Northern Ireland Civil Rights Association organised a march to protest internment
Attempts to control the march led to British Soldiers firing live ammunition
26 unarmed civillians were short
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Led to Bloody Sunday
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March 1972 - Heath suspended Stormont Parliament and brought in Direct Rule from Westminister
Heaths policy was not only to try and defeat the IRA but also to look for a permanent political solution
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Belfast government was close to breakdown
A number of paramilitary organisations blew up on both sides
IRA
Irish Republican Army
Republican
INLA
Irish National Liberation Army
RepublicanU
UDA
Ulster Defence Association
Loyalist
UVF
Ulster Volunteer Force
Loyalist
Heaths government were making attempts to find a political solution
Heath backed the leader of the UUP who led the Belfast Government
Went along with policies of imposing curfews and introducing internment in 1971
These were ineffective as security measures
Alienated the nationalist communities
Labour Governments of Wilson and Callaghan
Political, Economic and Industrial Problems and Policies
Labour came back into power in 1974
Wilson was in a less promising position than in 1964
Economic situation was dire
Inflation was at 15%
Balance of payments defecit at 3 billion
When calling a general election in 1974, labour had 42 more seats than the conservatives
Industrial Relations 1974/76
Negotiated the Social Contract with the TUC
Trade unions were sent a clear message that the Government was not looking for confrontation
Agreement was reached with the NUM allowing wilson to end the 3 day week
Denis Healey was chancellor
issued 2 new budgets in March and July
Social contract was not limiting wage demands
Economic Reforms
The first major problem was a surge in inflation due to the large rush of wage increases
Denis Healey gave a stern warning of the dangers
Wage Inflation caused unemployment
It was vital to cut public spending
Healey's budget imposed steep taxation and a cut to public spending
National Enterprise Board was set up in 1974 under Tony Benn
Helped administer the governments share holdings in private companies
Aimed to increase investment
Its effectiveness was being questioned in 1975
The governments decision to nationalise the car manufacturer British Leyland caused renewed controversy about the government rescuing lame duck industries
A more formal pay restraint was introduced
Shifts in policy intensified party divisions
Wilson suddenly resigned in 1976
Callaghans Premiership
Callaghan considered a "safe pair of hands" who had good links to the unions
Seen as the ideal leader to restore party unity
Was not easy as the government faced difficulties with the economy
1976, Poor balance of payments was putting pressure on the sterling
Concerns began to rise about Britain not having enough currency reserves to support it
September 76, Callaghan delivered a speech to the Labour Party conference
Outlined that production would need to improve to counteract Unemployment and Inflation
Speech was meant to prepare the Labour Party for Callaghans application to the IMF
Concerns about a Run on the Pound began to rise
Denis Healey received a loan of 3billion
Meant that the government had to make big spending cuts
While the economy recovered well and Callaghan handled the crisis well, Britain was stuck in an image of economic decline
Conservatives denounced this as a national humiliation
Economy began to stabilise when North Sea Oil came on stream
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Devolution
Callaghan strengthened the government by making the "Lib-Lab" pact after the Labour Majority in the House of Commons disappeared
Helped him defeat a vote of no confidence tabled by the conservatives
Callaghan promised to move ahead with Devolution in Wales and Scotland
Nationalists in Scotland and Wales had welcomed this opportunity
MP's of Conservative party and Labour were against any form of devolution
Led to lengthy debates in Parliament
Passed in 1978, allowed for referendums
Winter of Discontent
Autumn of 1978, TUC rejected the Labour Government proposal of a wage increase limit of 5%
Encouraged trade unions to put in higher demands
Ford Lorry drivers achieved a 15% increase in dcember after a 9 week strike
Unions began to follow their example
A wave of industrial action caused disruption to transport through Lorry Drivers and Train drivers
Public Sector workers also began to strike
This series of industrial unrest was not a serious challenge like the miners strike in 1974
Disputes were only brought to an end in March 1979 and the average pay increase was 10%
Psychological affect had a devastating impact on the public mood
The general Election 1979
Callaghan made the mistake of waiting to call an election
By the spring of 1979, the political landscape had been changed by the winter of discontent
Images of the winter of discontent had dominated the media
most of the media had supported the conservatives
The economic situation had deteriorated
Reputation of Trade unions had been damaged
Many workers began to consider voting conservative
Problems in Northern Ireland
While Heath had negotiated the sunningdale agreement, loyalists, republicans and the UUP were turning against it or already opposed
Ulster Workers coucil was set up by a shipyard worker
determined to bring down the executive
Faulkner resigned after a fortnight and Wilson was forced to reimpose Direct rule
Collapse of the Sunningdale agreement
Wilson forced to announce the establishment of the Northern Irish Constitution Convention
Elections in July 1975 resulted in a majorirty for unionists who were opposed to powersharing
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Announced a strike to start on the 15th may 1974
The strike limited power and telecommunications
Led to a declaration of a State of Emergency
Special Category status was removed from terrorist prisoners
They were no longer considered political prisoners and were treated as terrorists
Disliked by paramilitaries - believed they were engaged in a war
Society in the 1970's
Progress of Feminism
The high point of second wave feminism that had developed in the 60's
Was supported all across the world
Can be seen as the inaugeration of International womens day by the UN in 1977
Womens support groups sprang up across the UK
Feminism was split into different Ideologies
Radical Feminists
Believed that women were oppressed by the patriarchal society
Campaigned on issues like reproductive rights
Socialist Feminists
Identified a clearer class dimension to womens equality and campaigned on issues that enabled women to achieve financial independence
Progress was made in advancing reproductive rights
Birth control became more wide spread through the NHS
Attempts were made to tackle violence against women
First rape crisis centre opened in London in 1976
Domestic Violence Act made it possible for Women to take out court orders restraining violent partners
Sex Discrimination act
Passed in 1975 to end discrimination against men or women on the basis of their gender or marital status
Aimed to ensure equality of opportunity in the fields of employment and education
Set up the equality opportunities commission
Set up to oversee the discrimination act and the Equal Pay act
Was majorly unsuccessful as claims in the workplace were difficult to prove
Womens economic positions did start to improve during the 1970s
Women were able to take out a mortgage without a male guarantor
Equal Pay act came into force in 1975
Did not solve all the concerns that Women were not treated equally
employers were able to get around it by making tasks slightly different and incomparable
Employment protection act introduced paid maternity leave and outlawed dismissal on the grounds of pregnancy
There continued to be inequality
Trade unions tended to be dominated by men
Suspicions remained that Women in the workplace would supress wages for men
It was not until 1979 that the TUC published a charter; "Equality for Women within Trade Unions
Womens wages did go up from 59% of mens wages to 70% in 1977
Race and Immigration
Immigration continued to be a cause of social concern
National Front became active in London where Immigrants had settled
While it never won any elections, its popularity grew in the 1970's and had gone up to 20,000 members in 75.
Some strategies of the NF was to hold marches and demonstrations in areas of high immigrant population
often marked by violence
Some skinheads were attracted by the ideas set out in the National front
Often behind violent attacks from other ethnic backgrounds
Other young people fought against racist attitudes
Indicated ongoing concern over immigration and produced a response from main political parties
Late 70's Conservatives announced they would toughen up the immigration policy to limit immigrants coming to Britain
People complained that Thatcher's words were to appeal to racists
Distrust regarding the police's treatment of ethnic minorities
Young black people often felt that the police were harassing them without reason
1971 - Government passed the immigration act
restricted the right of people from the New Commonwealth from coming to Britain
They would need to have a guaranteed job and atleast one Grandparent born in Britain
Despite strict immigration rules, race relations continued to be an issue
1976, Labour government passed another Race relations act to try and tackle race discrimination
Established the Commission for Racial Equality
Had the power to investigate and gain witnesses to appear
Steady flow of immigrants from the Indian subcontinent remained
Events abroad often caused sudden influxes
By 1974, over 1 million new commonwealth immigrants had come to Britain
tended to settle in areas where pre-built communities existed
Political representation in these areas remained limited
Youth Culture
Continued to cause concerns for older generations
Youth subcultures represented the social, political and economic battles going on elsewhere
1975-76 saw the beginning of the punk movement
Influenced by bands from the united states
Punk philosophy was often nihilistic
embraced a DIY attitude
The punk image was designed to be shocking
Skinheads developed from Mod Culture
tended to be working class yet became increasingly linked with racism and football hooliganism
Football hooliganism was already a growing issue
worsened over the decade
Organised groups were set up
Scenes of violence became common
Environmentalism
1970 was announced to be the year of European conservation
Environmentalist groups started to pop up in the UK
Friends of the earth formed in the USA and expanded to Britain in 1971
A new form of Anti Nuclear protest cropped up
Campaigned against the use of nuclear power
GreenPeace founded to campaign against whaling
Animal Rights protesters carried out violent attacks
sent letter bombs to politicians including Thatcher in the 80's
Formation of the Green Party
Foreign affairs
Britains entry into and Relations with Europe
Britain successfully joined the EEC in 1973
Many people feared that Britain's acceptance into the EEC was 16 years too late and that Britain would suffer greatly
Issues regarding Parliamentary approval in Britain
Doubters were in the Conservative party
Enoch Powell was strongly against joining the EEC
Powell believed that Heath was betraying the UK and refused tp stand as a conservative candidate in the 1974 election
Called on his supporters to vote Labour
The Labour Party was also divided on the issue of europe
Some were committed to Pro European ideas (Roy Jenkins)
Labour Left was mostly hostile
Labour officially opposed Heaths plans in parliament but could not argue against the principle
Many people still believed in the commonwealth
Believed that Britain would be surrendering her sovereignty
European Referendum
Wilsons main aim of 1974 was party unity
Wilson wanted to allow his cabinet to vote on their own views rather than trying to enforce a party line
Voter support of joining the EEC was strong
The economic state of the country proved that Britain needed to be in the EEC for its own survival
When the referendum passed, the matter was closed despite divisions in both parties
The state of the Special Relationship with the USA
Heath was less inclined to maintain the Atlantic Alliance due to his Europe Oriented approach
Rejected the USA's attempts to use Britain as a link to Europe
Insisted that the USA should negotiate with the European Community as a whole rather than using Britain as a "Go Between"
Relations between Britain and the USA worsened during the Yom Kippur War
The US wanted to use NATO bases in Europe to send supplies to Israel
Many European states refused
However Wilson and Callaghan were still keen on the Atlantic Alliance
Callaghan forged a relationship with Kissinger and negotiated the replacement of Polaris Missiles with Trident in 79 with Jimmy Carter
Attitudes to the USSR and China
Attitudes to the USSR
After the Cuban Missile Crisis, both US and USSR presidents wanted to prevent another situation occuring by establishing direct contact
Led to meetings and an agreement to the reduction in the buildup of arms
An underlying tension remained as there were still fears over the soviet influence in Europe
Attitudes to China
Strained relationships between China, Britain, USA and USSR
Changed when Nixon announced a visit to China
Meetings were held with Mao Zedong
Britain followed the American lead in March 1974
Heath was awarded the title of "Peoples Friendship Envoy"