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Section 2 - Modern Britain - Coggle Diagram
Section 2 - Modern Britain
Wilson and the Labour Governments
Harold Wilson becomes prime minister in 1964
Harold was a better politician tactically
Appeared to be on the left of the labour party
Was a bevanite, resigned over prescription charges in 1950
Also served in Gaitskells cabinet
Supported Britains nuclear deterrent and attempted to reform the trade unions
In private he was said to have been anxious and insecure about his leadership
Was conscious about potential rivals and wanted to remain unchallenged
Relied on a team of personal advisors from outside of the government and civil service
Labour more in touch with social and cultural trends of the 1960's
Labour was able to consolidate their position in 1966 with an election victory
In terms of the conservative party, Douglas Home was replaced by Edward Heath
Economic Policies; including devaluation
Labour desperately wanted to modernise the British Economy
Had inherited a deficit of around £800 million
Solutions to this problem were always either Deflation or Devaluation
These ideas were not supported by Wilson or Callaghan
Wilson aimed to set up the DEA
Led by George Brown
Eventually the DEA came to nothing due to lack of government support
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Devised a national system of "Economic planning councils" and Growth targets
Devaluation would support value of the pound and prevent inflation - but fell into the stop go cycle that Labour wanted to break away from
Devaluation made imports more expensive and would help exporters by making British goods cheaper
Was likely to have made Britain weaker
Affluence of the post war boom had not reflected in Productivity or growth rates
Economy was trapped in the stop-go cycle with prosperity always leading to inflation
Sterling Crisis in 1966
Caused by a strike from the Union of Seamen
While the government defeated the strike, many were shocked by Wilsons Critical attitude
Trade Unionist Frank Cousins resigned as a result of the incomes policy
Relationship between Government and trade unions began to wear down
An outbreak of war in the middle east in 1967 affected oil supplies
A major national dock strike in 67 affected the balance of payments
Labour decided that devaluation could not be avoided at this point and went back to stop-go economics,
This damaged their credibility
Due to 2nd rejection of the eec, the governments economic policies looked incredibly futile at this point
The economic situation following the 2nd rejection of the eec improved under Roy Jenkins
Used deflationary methods and by 1969 had achieved a balance of payments surplus
Industrial Relations and the Trade Unions
In the early 1960's, almost 60% of people had a favourable view on trade unions
1964, Wilson made Cousins minister for Technology
Wilson relying on trade union cooperation for the prices and incomes policies
Late 60s, relations with trade unions began to break down following strikes by the seamen and the dockers
Led to economic problems within the government
Strikes seemed to demonstrate that union bosses were beginning to lose some of their control
Many strikes started with "wildcat" strikes
Conservative opposition under Heath announced the "fair deal at work" policies
Wilson and Barbara Castle began planning to use the law to limit unnofficial strikes
Castle believed in a powerful trade union movement - but also was convinced of the need to act responsibly
Went on to write "In Place of Strife"
Many voters liked the proposals laid out in Castles Policies
Supported by many Labour MPS
Unions and the Left hated the policies
Led to protests from union leaders
Supported by Callaghan and other 50 labour mp's who were ready to rebel
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Labour Divisions
Divisions between the left and right remained
After the death of Bevan and Gaitskell, Labour was united by Wilson
Wilson's focus on technological modernisation united the Left and Right
Minimised underlying tensions regarding the Abolishment of Clause IV
Personal Rivalries existed in Wilsons cabinet
Wilson feared he would face a Leadership Challenge from Brown or Callaghan or Jenkins
Brown resentful that he had lost the election to Wilson
Further disappointed that he was not made foreign secretary in 1964
Wilson rumoured to have undermined Browns reputation by keeping a record of his embarrassing incidents
Wilson suspicious of Jenkins - who was a Gaitskellite
Did not support Jenkins liberalising legistlation
Interpreted Jenkins support of devaluation as a plot to replace himself and Brown with Callaghan and Jenkins
Highlighted Wilsons paranoia, It was unlikely that Jenkins and Callaghan would have worked well together
Callaghan did not approve of Jenkins pro-european stance, or his Liberalising Legislation
Jenkins critical of Failure to devalue when Callaghan was chancellor
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The Start of the Troubles
Ireland as a whole was majority catholic
Majority of Northern Irish civillians were protestant
Parliament and the whole socioeconomic system was dominated by protestant Unionists
By 1960 there was mounting evidence that Catholics in Northern Ireland were being discriminated against
1964 - Civil rights movements in Northern Ireland challenged these Discriminations
Tensions rose as unionists feared the IRA would start a new campaign
Loyalists started to set up paramilitary organisations to defend the union
Civil rights marches held in 1968 to protest against discrimination
Attacked by loyalists
Catholics complained that the RUC failed to protect them
Situation devolved further in 1969
Loyalist "Apprentice Boys" went ahead with their march in Derry
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Accusations that the RUC was biased against catholics
End of the Post War Consensus
1970 - first signs of the PWC breaking down
Britains economic problems did not seem to be solved by consensus policies
Trade unions becoming uncooperative
Forced Labour to try and mend these industrial Relations
Left of the Party was dissatisfied by moderate Labour Policies
Conservative party also starting to doubt efficiacy of key elements in the PWC
Also identifying the need for Trade Union Reform
The loss of the 1970 election
Conservative victory was a surprise
Heath had greater strengths than Wilson
Labours position at this point was quite fragile
Labour had managed to pull through tough economic times
Jenkins managed to achieve economic and financial stability
Wilson considered a master campaigner
Liberal Reforming Legislation
Private Members Bills
Initially labour did not set out with a "Liberalising agenda"
Manifestos made no mention of moral issues
Leaders like Wilson and Brown were conservative in their views
Many working class MP's remained suspicious of change
1960's saw more backbench MPS propose legislation through Private Members bills
The End of Capital Punishment
Arguments against the death penalty had been advanced in the 1950-s
Opinions remained divided however the anti-hanging campaign had recieved a boost from the case of Ruth Ellis
Hanging was abolished in 1965 on a Free vote, and was permanently abolished in 1969 after a trial period of 5 years
Abolishment of hanging did not decrease the number of murders or violent crimes
Jenkins refused to authorise the beating of prisoners
Ceased after 1967
Brought in majority verdicts in courts rather than demanding unanimity
Helped to convict many dangerous criminals
Divorce Reform
Until the 1960's. divorce law demanded evidence that one party in a marriage had committed adultery
Evidence was only available to the rich, as many rich people were able to use private detectives and cameras
For others a divorce was virtually impossible
Jenkins believed these laws were out of date and the Divorce Reform act was passed in 1969
Allowed for "No Fault divorces" following the "irretrievable breakdown of marriage"
Couples could divorce if:
They had lived apart for two years and both partners agreed to a divorce
They had lived apart for 5 years and one partner wanted the divorce
Not all MPS were in favor of this act
Following the passing of this reform, the number of divorces had increased
1950's there were fewer than 2 divorces per 1000 married couples
1970s 10 in 1000 marriages ended in divorce
Legalisation of Abortion
Abortion was illegal until 1967 unless it was on strict medical grounds
Only way of terminating a pregnancy at this time was to find a private clinic or use a backstreet abortionist
Between 100,000 and 200,000 illegal abortions were performed each year
Around 35,000 women were admitted to hospitals with complications as a result
Between 1958 and 1960 58 women had died as a result of backstreet abortions
Abortion Law Reform Association had campaigned for a reform in the law from 1945
Thalidomide disaster of 1959 did more than their arguments to sway public opinion
Abortion Act permitted the legal termination of a pregnancy within the first 28 weeks under medical supervision
Women needed 2 doctors to sign of their consent
Women only needed the justification of mental suffering, and the result was not based on her physical condition
The number of abortions increased from 4/100 live births to 17.6/100
1966, Society for the Protection of Unborn Children was set up to oppose the ALRA
Feared an extension of abortion beyond strict medical grounds would lead to abortion on demand
Legalisation of Homosexual Relations
Until the 1960's, men could be imprisoned for 2 years for participating in "Homosexual Acts"
Conservative government rejected the Wolfenden Commission and Labour of 1964 was divided on the issue
Eventually the 1967 Sexual Offences act was passed
While it did not legalise the act of Homosexuality, it decriminalised them if 3 conditions were met
Both partners were consenting
Both partners were over the age of 21
They were performing these acts in a private space
Education Reforms
Development of Comprehensive Schools
By the 1960s the idea that the tripartite system was equal had passed
Secondary students were seen as 11+ failures
The system appeared Socially Divisive
Majority of Grammar school places went to those who had a middle class background
Local Education Authorities were responsible for schools
Had established comprehensive schools
By 1964 1/10 pupils were being educated in a comprehensive
remained the minority
Tony Crossland was a supporter of the comprehensive system and accelerated this process under his role as minister of education
Issued circular 10/65 to all LEA's
Requested the conversion to comprehensive schools
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Expansion of Higher education; Open University
Fears of Britain slipping behind in science and technological education led to the establishment of the Robbins Committee in 1961
The report found that Britain lagged behind France, Germany and the USA in university places
Found that too many students went into arts related courses
Labour responded by expanding Higher education
Polytechnics replaced colleges of technology - focused on applied education
by 1968 there were 30 poly technics and 56 universities
Opened up higher education for many whose families had never attended a university
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Nine colleges of advanced technology became universities
New universities were established
New institutions brought new courses and it became possible to take a degree in town planning and architecture
The Open University
Offered high level degrees in arts and sciences to people who never had the opportunity to attend campus universities
Labour party study group had proposed an experiment on Radio and TV to be proposed
"University of the Air"
Wilson appointed Jennie Lee to consider this project
The Open University headquarters was established in 1969, in milton keynes
Used radio and television to allow for distance learning and recruited part time students
Attracted women and the disadvantaged
Social and Cultural Change
Expansion of the Mass Media
Television became widely available
Created a uniformity of culture and ended isolation of distant communities
News no longer relayed by a disembodied voice or a news paper
People thought that Paper news would become invalid
Magazines and newspapers survived
"The Sun" was launched in 1964
by 1961, 75% of the population had a television in their home
Grew to 91% in 1971
Television was now funded more than radio
1955 - launch of ITV allowed for advertising to expand
Meant that people could see advertisements at home
BBC2 launched april 1964, allowed BBC1 to grow more populist
July 1967 BBC2 was the first station to host television programmes in colour
Guidelines surrounding nudity and swearing were revised
Radio still managed to survive
cheap and portable radios developed alongside car radios
Portable radios were used in tandem with long life batteries and headphones
Teenagers could listen to what they wanted to hear
Young people began tuning to signals of pop music from Radio Luxembourg
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Personal radios increased radio channels catering to different tastes
Only 3 BBC radio stations at the beginning of the 1960's
Growth in leisure activities
Leisure time expanded as fewer people were expected to work on Saturday mornings
Weekends could be given over to leisure activities
Home remained the centre of leisure activities
extended by the development of television
accounted for 23% of leisure time in the home
DIY and gardening also became popular hobbies
Cooking and needlework remained strong in the home
encouraged by television programs and the ability to listen to radios while doing these tasks
Live theatre shrank rapidly
Car ownership accelerated rapidly
led to a decline in bus travel, coach and train travel
Cars became more affordable
Permitted people to travel further to do shopping in alternative shopping centres
Shopping became a leisure activity in its own right
Allowed for activities such as caravanning and sailing
Leisure travel turned into mass tourism
number of holidays increased
Britannia Airways founded in 1964
allowed holiday makers to fly to spain, canary islands, malta, bulgaria and North africa
Cost of airtravel meant that holidays abroad were still largely the preserve of the middle classes
Continental travel began to bring more flavour into British tastes
led to an increase of restaurants and wine bars
Impact of scientific developments
despite economic problems and financial restrains, the Labour government had made significant scientific progress
Anglo-French partnership developed the supersonic concorde aircraft
Post office tower opened in 1965 to improve telecommunications
Reduction in censorship
Playwrights began experimenting with new styles of plays
addressed social issues that led to clashes with the office of Lord Chamberlain
Plays had to gain a license before they were allowed to be performed
Theatre owners could be prosecuted if they performed a play without correct approbal
Backbencher George Strauss introduced a bill to abolish theatrical censorship
Supported by Roy Jenkins
Passed in 1968
Removal of censorship permitted nudity on stage
Films remained subject to strict censorship guidelines
However the 1960's saw a broadening of what was acceptable
TV became affected by liberal attitudes
Progress towards Female Equality
Ideas of women as a housewife remained strong in the 1960's
Second-wave feminism began to make its way to the UK
Aided by the growth in female education
only few women made it to top, managerial positions
No shortage of jobs for women
many of these jobs were in clerical and service sector
had poor pay and no progression
Lower class women were still subjected to more domestically centred education
Girls frequently left school at the minimum age and continued to marry young
Working mothers still considered taboo by the media
NHS began to provide free contraceptives and advice in 1967 ( Family planning act)
Changing attitudes meant that the number of Illegitimate births rose from 5.7% in 1960 to 8.2% in 1970
Feminist movement encouraged by articles and books
Women Liberation groups sprung up around the UK to campaign for societal and economic equality for women
a Rally in Britain led to the establishment of the Womens National Co-ordination Committee in 1969
At their first conference, four demands were put foreward
Equal pay
Free contraception and abortion on request
equal educational and job opportunities
Only some progress was made towards this
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Free 24 hour childcare
Changes in Moral attitudes and the "permissive society"
1960's regarded as the "permissive society"
refers to a change in sexual liberation, and changes in public and private morals
Term was used in a negative way
believed it was down to the decline of conventional moral standards, encouraged by the contraceptive pill
Catholic church was hostile to the contraceptive pill
Argued that it was sinful and against Gods Law
Permissive ideas were spread by the media
"Teen magazines"
uncensored novels also helped to broaden the ideas of permissiveness
previously taboo subjects were discussed in books, on radio and in television
By the end of the 1960's, sexually transmitted diseases were on the rise
Mary Whitehouse concerned by these changes
Led to her setting up the National Viewers and Listeners association in 1965
She failed to have any impact on the programmes shown
Spread of drug culture began to rise
Promoted by the "hippy lifestyle" and its emphasis on "free love" and flower power
Cocaine and Heroin addiction became ten times more prevalent in the first half of the decade
more softcore drugs were prevalent towards the end of the decade
Dangerous drugs act of 1967 made it illegal to posses drugs like cannabid and cocaine
Wootton Report of 1968 suggested legalising soft drugs
rejected by the home secretary
Youth Culture
Young people at this time were more inclined to question norms
Began to clash with their parents over fashion, musical tastes and moral standards
More questioning regarding sex and drugs
Teens used substances like alcohol and tobacco more than the exaggerated claims of young people overusing drugs
According to a survey in young people spent more time listening to music in their bedrooms rather than being at clubs or festivals
Young people listened to music by tuning into pirate stations (or BBC Radio One)
Music became readily available through vinyl records and handheld radios
Television catered to young people with programmes like top of the pops
helped spread the latest trends in music
Largely defined by fashion and music
London became the capital of the fashion world for a short period of time in the 1960's
Traditional rules were abandoned
Changing fashion rules helped override the social divisions between sexes and classes
Women were allowed to wear trousers and men started to wear velvets, satins and brightly coloured fabrics
Different youth subcultures emerged
Skinheads evolved from the mods
Hippies rejected social conventions
emanated from America
Issues of Immigration and Race
Social tensions from the influx of New commonwealth immigrants did not go away
A survey in north london showed that one in 5 objected to working with Black people or Asians
Half said that they would refuse to live next door to a Black Person
9/10 disapproved of Mixed Marriages
1965, Labour passed the Race Relations Act
Forbade discrimination in public places on the grounds of "colour, race or ethnic origins"
Discrimination in housing and employment were excluded in this Act
Complaints were forwarded to the Race Relations board who were supposed to concilliate.
February of 1968 - alarm over the influx of Kenyan Asians prompted the government to pass a new Commonwealth Immigration act
Led to Enoch Powells "River of Blood" Speech
Powell was strongly condemned over this speech by the Establishment
Heath sacked Powell from the shadow cabinet
Public opinon was divided
Strikes by dockers and meat porters in London
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75% of the population had agreed with what Powell had said
Further race relations act was introduced in the same year
Banned racial discrimination in housing, employment and other services
Loopholes remained
Employers could still discriminate against non-whites in the interest of Racial Balance
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Race relations board given stronger powers
Complaints made to the board remained low as people had little faith in getting these issues fixed
Not all aspects of immigration were negative
Evidence shows that some communities were able to live together without problems
Notting Hill carnival became an annual event from 1964
Appearance of asian cornershops and chinese takeaways supplied new food to britain
Youth culture drew from ethnic communities in music, fashion and streetlife
Foreign affairs
Relations with and Policies towards the USA + Vietnam
Wilson himself was Pro-american and a keen supporter of the atlantic alliance
Cold war was ongoing and Britain wanted to ensure that the USA stayed committed to the defence of Europe
Relationship between UK and USA came under strain during the vietnam war
President Johnson wanted support and approval from US allies
Australia sent troops and Johnson wanted Britain to do the same
Wilson resisted direct military intervention
Despite this, Wilson wanted to maintain the Atlantic alliance but Vietnam became unpopular in Britain
Risked losing political support if he was too supportive of it
Britain could not afford military intervention
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Soviet threat was increasing and highlighted by the invasion of Czechoslovakia
Response to world affairs and Relations with Europe
Labour of 1964 was not very committed to seeking entry into the EEC
Many left-wing labour supporters, MP's and Trade unions were hostile to the idea
Considered the EEC a "capitalist club"
However there were many Europhiles in the Cabinet
Wilson himself was more ambivalent and preferred the AA and stronger links with the Commonwealth
However he understood the economic reasons for joining the eec
Was conscious of keeping the Labour party united with the issue
Became more convinced in 1966 and Wilsons cabinet agreed to back a new application for EEC membership
Application was rejected by DeGaulle again
Decolonisation - Withdrawal from Suez and Rhodesia
Withdrawal from the East of Suez
Labour Government knew that there would have to be a reduction in Britains military commitments for economic reasons
Denis Healey started spending cuts in order to bring the defence budget below £2 Billion by 1970
After the devaluation crisis of 67, Jenkins proposed even more drastic spending cuts
Withdrawal from suez was drastically sped up
Development of new warplanes were stopped due to their expenses
Some argued that these cuts did not go far enough or fast enough
Wilson believed in the Atlantic Alliance and Britain continuing to have a world role
No debate about Britain giving up its nuclear deterrent despite its expenses
Wilson Government announced that it would continue to deploy US Polaris missiles
Rhodesia
Macmillans "Winds of Change speech" seen as a challenge in Southern Africa
1963, Federation of Rhodesia and Nyasaland broke up into seperate entities
Northern Rhodesia became the new independent state of Zambia, Nyasalnd became Malawi
Southern Rhodesia hoped for independence at the same time
Britain made it clear that this could not happen until majority rule replaced the white political domination
Political row blew up when Ian Smith became prime minister
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