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Exam 5 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - apomorphy shared by >1 taxa
      - synonymous with homology
    - - character newer than
    - - character older than
    - - trait gained or lost independently in separate lineages
      - convergent evolution leads to species independently sharing a trait #
    - - derived novel trait
    - - independent evolution of a similar trait
        
        indeterminate meristems evolved independently
        
        vascular meristems likely evolved independently
  - - - found in charophytes
        
        main filamentous
    - - mitosis
        
        metaphase
        
        anaphase
        
        telophase
        
        prophase
      - cytokinesis
    - - filamentous
      - apical bud
    - - continuously divides
      - matures into transition tissues
      - totipotent region
  - - - cytokinesis in oblique planes
    - - only divides at tip
      - cytokinesis on a single plane
  - - - unique mutant
  - - - equal branching
        
        isotomous
      - unequal branching
        
        anisotomous
  - - - produce new organs
      - produce new tissue
      - from shoot apex
- - - - Stromatolites #
      - Cyanobacteria
      - Iron depletion
  - - - Chlorophyll B
        
        Second most abundant
      - Chlorophyll A
        
        Most abundant
    - - Broaden absorption spectrum
  - - - Connected by electron transport chain #
  - - - Electron flow + flow of protons
        
        Protons trapped in thylakoid
        
        NADPH
        
        Energy > ATP
    - - Builds proton motive force
    - - Light energy splits water
      - Release oxygen + protons
        
        Oxygen diffusion through stomata
    - - Bring protons from stroma + lumen
    - - Proton motive force
  - - - CO2 fixer
    - - RuBisCO binds to CO2 + O2
    - - Glucose production
        
        Amyloplasts
        
        Cytosol
        
        Chloroplasts
  - - - Herbaceous forms
      - Dry regions
    - - Stomata opens at night
- - - - involved in root hair development
      - before land plants
  - - - similar to roots
      - lateral sigmarian rootlets
      - no root cap
  - - - zosterophyllophyta
      - rhynie chert
  - - - endodermis
      - root cap
- - - - tracheids
  - - - pit membranes
      - water transport only
    - - lignified with ornamented walls
    - - water movement and support
    - - angiosperms
      - dead at maturity
      - differentiation
        
        vacuolization
        
        apical meristem
        
        elongation
        
        secondary cell wall
  - - - transportation
        
        hormones
        
        photosynthate
        
        electric signals
      - sieve tube element features
        
        primary cell wall
        
        form sieve tube
        
        sieve plate
    - - form sieve plate and pores
  - - - root with pith
      - stem without pith
    - - stem with pith
      - root without pith
    - - diameter increased
      - height increased
    - - siphonostele
      - eustele
      - protostele
    - - endarch
      - mesarch
      - exarch
    - - exarche
      - protostele
    - - siphonostele
      - endarch
    - - no pith
      - vascular bundles surrounded by sclerenchyma
      - atactostele
    - - endarch
      - vascular bundle supported by sclerenchyma
      - eustele
  - - - water loss per carbon gained
        
        selective pressure for light
- - - - Hydrophily (water pollination)
        
        pollen often oblong and heavy
        
        marine transport
        
        Small flowers produce copious pollen
      - Anemophily (wind pollination)
        
        light pollen easily airborne
        
        Small, inconspicuous flowers
        
        often have feathery stigmas
    - - Phalaenophily (moth pollination)
        
        Flowers often white
        
        heavily scented
        
        tubular corollas accommodate moth proboscis
        
        often pollinated at night
      - Myophily (fly pollination)
        
        Flowers pale to dull/dark brown and purple
        
        may smell rotten
      - Psychophily (butterfly pollination)
        
        brightly colored
        
        reds, yellows, and oranges
        
        open during day
        
        produce nectar
        
        often inside floral tubes
      - Ornithophily (bird pollination)
        
        produce nectar deep in corolla
        
        open during the day
        
        flowers tubular and odorless
      - Melitophily (bee pollination)
        
        produce nectar
        
        open during day
        
        bright flowers
        
        often blue and yellow
        
        strong scent
        
        landing pads
      - Cantharophily (beetle pollination)
        
        lots of nectar deep in corolla
        
        open during day
        
        open, bowl-shaped flowers
      - Chiropterophily (bat pollination)
        
        fragrant
        
        flowers pale or white
        
        produce lots of nectar
        
        open at night
    - - plants mimic scent and/or appearance of pollinators' mates
  - - - seeds typically bouyant
        
        float on water
    - - fruits often fleshy and nutritious
        
        seeds adapted to survive digestion
    - - fruits often have wings/parachutes
        
        allows them to be carried by wind
    - - hooks/sticky surfaces attach to hooves and fur
        
        facilitates transport
    - - seeds fall from fruit capsule via gravity
        
        spread around parent plant
  - - - Corolla (petals)
        
        whorl of petals
        
        attracts pollinators
        
        aids reproduction
      - Androecium (stamens)
        
        male reproductive organ
        
        filament
        
        anther
        
        contains pollen sacs (microsporangia)
        
        pollen grains develop
      - calyx (sepals)
        
        outermost whorl
        
        leaf--like
        
        protects flower bud through development
      - Gynoecium (carpels)
        
        female reproductive organ
        
        style
        
        elevates stigma
        
        ovary
        
        contains ovule
        
        develop into seeds
        
        stigma
        
        catches pollen grains
    - - scent
        
        plants emit chemicals to attract certain pollinators
        
        scent glands increase aroma
      - shape
        
        actinomorphic
        
        radially symmetric
        
        zygomorphic
        
        irregularly shaped, symmetric along one plane
      - blooming time
        
        flowers bloom at different times
        
        eg. dinural
      - color
        
        various colors attract specific pollinaotrs
        
        some colors only visible on ultraviolet spectrum
      - rewards
        
        pollen
        
        pollinator nutrition
        
        provides nitrogen
        
        nectar
        
        sugary substance
        
        can contain amino acids
        
        other
        
        eg. oils and fats
    - - complete flower
        
        contains all 4 floral organs
      - incomplete flowers
        
        lacks 1 or more floral organs
  - - - Aggregate
        
        formed by multiple ovaries
      - Multiple
        
        develop from multiple ovaries of different flowers
        
        merge into a single fruit
      - Simple
        
        develop from 1 carpel or multiple carpels fused
        
        berries
        
        drupes
        
        pomes
        
        dehiscent or indehiscent
    - - parthenocarpic
        
        develop without fertilization
        
        produce seedless varieties
      - accessory
        
        includes tissue other than ovary
    - - Double fertilization #
      - ovary development
        
        mesocarp
        
        fleshy middle layer
        
        can be edible
        
        endocarp
        
        tough inner layer
        
        protects seed
        
        exocarp
        
        outer layer
  - - - Ancestral traits
        
        Radial symmetrical along any axis
        
        Multiple petal whorls
        
        early flowers had abundant petals and reproductive structures
        
        Bisexual
        
        contains male and female organs
      - Fossil evidence
        
        first evidence Archifructus sinesis
        
        ~124 billion years ago
        
        aquatic and herbacious
      - flowers likely evolved from determinate shoot-bearing sporophylls
      - Modern examples
        
        most primitive extant angiosperm
        
        Amborella trichopoda
        
        has numerous anthers and carpels
      - Structural change over time
        
        derived flowers developed fused structures and irregular symmetry
        
        flowers developed more definite structure
      - Key components
        
        male vs female
        
        androecium
        
        male structure
        
        anthers
        
        gynoecium
        
        female structure
        
        carpels
        
        sepals
        
        calyx
        
        petals
        
        corrola
- - - - similar to functions in extant angiosperms
    - - played different role than today
    - - stomatal canal
      - space filled with fluid
      - pseudostomata
  - - - control water loss
      - CO2 in
      - oxygen out
  - - - kidney shaped
      - random orientation
    - - dumbell shaped
      - parallel to epidermal cells
  - - - microfibrils radially oriented
      - active metabolic processes
    - - protons pumped out
      - ancestral condition filled with chloroplasts
        
        blue light independant
      - provides ATP
      - close at nigh and under water stress
    - - derived character
      - reduce cavitation
      - pore closed during water stress
      - water loss vs. carbon gain
      - ABA responsive
- - - - gametophyte
        
        megagametophyte
        
        multicellular haploid
        
        egg cell
        
        microgametophyte
        
        multicellular haploid
        
        pollen grain
      - sporophyte
        
        annual to perennial
        
        flowering plants diverse
        
        intermediate growth
    - - gametophyte
        
        microgametophyte
        
        pollen
        
        megagametophyte
        
        nutritive tissue
        
        protected by integuments
        
        within ovule
      - sporophyte
        
        gametophyte reduced to microscopic
        
        large dominant diploid stage
  - - - gametophyte
        
        male and female develop in spore wall
        
        small
      - sporophyte
        
        heterosporous
        
        1 megasporocyte per megasporanguim
    - - gametophyte
        
        microgametophytes
        
        male
        
        megagametophytes
        
        female
      - sporophyte
        
        sori
        
        sporangia
        
        indusia
        
        large persistant diploid
  - - - Gametophyte
        
        dominant life stage
        
        antheridial head
        
        archegonial head
      - sporophyte
        
        small, temporary structures
        
        parasitic to gametophyte
        
        meiosis occurs in sporanguim
    - - Gametophyte
        
        antheridiophore
        
        archegoniophore
        
        dominant life stage
      - Sporophyte
        
        small, temporary structures
        
        parasitic to gametophyte
        
        meiosis occurs in sporangium
  - - - Current land plants haplodiplontic
        
        Antithetic/interpolation theory
        
        zygote undergoes mitotic division
        
        predictions
        
        complex, persistent gametophytes
        
        simple, short-lives sporophytes
        
        heteromorphic generations
- - - - Hyperthermophilic Prokaryotes
        
        Don't require oxygen to metabolize
        
        Often die when exposed to oxygen
    - - NADH
        
        Electron carrier
        
        Electron transport chain
        
        Generates ATP
        
        Main energy carrier
        
        Photophosphorylation
        
        High-energy
  - - - Precursor to photosynthetic stromal reactions
    - - Solar energy
    - - Basic sugar used for energy
      - Alpha glucose
        
        Energy storage
      - Beta glucose
        
        Sturctural
  - - - PGAL
      - PGA
      - Pyruvate
        
        Fermentation
        
        NADH recycled
- - - - Phospholipid
      - embedded proteins
  - - - Form multiple organelles
    - - Intermediate filaments
      - Microtubules
      - Microfilaments
  - - - Inner membrane
        
        Oxidative phosphorylation
      - Matrix
        
        CAC #
      - Outer membrane
    - - Chloroplast
    - - Additional protection
      - Beta glucose #
        
        Building block for cellulose
- - - - earliest evidence of true leaves
        
        lycophytes
        
        microphylls/lycophylls
      - euphyllophytes
    - - indeterminate growth preceded #
      - leaves initiate regular patterns
      - optimized for photosynthesis
    - - low stomatal densities
      - low water uptake
      - high temp atmosphere
      - lack of efficient vascular transport
    - - at least 5 independent origins
        
        lycophyte sporophyte
        
        monoliphyte sporophyte
        
        moss gametophyte
        
        spermatophyte sporophyte
        
        Liverwort gametophyte
    - - microphyll
        
        lycophyte
      - frond
        
        moliyphyte
      - mitosis of a single cell
        
        liverwort and moss
      - euphylls
        
        seed plants
    - - progressive elaboration
      - vascular strands entered later
      - lycophyte leaves
      - fossils consistent
      - living evidence
        
        2 epidermal cells grow into leaf pair
    - - webbing
        
        webbing becomes mesophyll
        
        branching becomes veins
        
        develop thin tissue between axes
      - plantation
        
        flattening axes into 2D
      - overtopping
        
        unequal branching
      - evolution of euphylls
      - euphylls widespread by devonian
  - - - specialized parenchyma
      - contains air space
      - permits gas exchange
      - buoyancy in aquatic plants
      - ground tissue
    - - thickened primary walls
      - flexible support
      - found in bundle sheath of veins
      - ground tissue
    - - specialized parenchyma
      - photosynthesis
      - ground tissue
    - - in veins
      - phloem
      - xylem
    - - guard cells
      - epidermal cells
      - dermal tissue
      - cutinized
      - protect internal tissue
  - - - microphylls
      - single vascular trace along blade
      - vascular strand connects to stem
- - - - Open stomata creates water potential gradient
        
        water moves from roots through xylem
        
        water potential typically higher in soil than atmosphere
    - - attraction between water molecules
        
        maintains water column in xylem
    - - attraction of water molecules to xylem walls
        
        helps counter gravity
    - - water enters root hairs via osmosis
        
        casparian strip filters water before entering vascular tissue
    - - as water is lost, tension increases in xylem
        
        helps pull water up against gravity
        
        negative pressure in xylem maintains flow
  - - - Turgor pressure
        
        water influx pushes photosynthate through phloem
      - Osmotic Pressure
        
        water enters xylem
    - - Pressure flow
        
        driven by pressure difference
        
        Unloading sucrose into sink reduces phloem pressure
    - - Active transport
        
        sucrose loaded into sieve elements
        
        requires ATP
    - - Source to sink
        
        Source
        
        areas of produciton
        
        eg. leaves and roots
        
        Sink
        
        areas of consumption/storage
        
        eg. fruits and apical meristems
  - - - Pressure flow hypothesis
        
        photosynthates move from sources to sinks
        
        movement through phloem
      - Cohesion-tension theory
        
        water moves through xylem
        
        tension created by transpiration
        
        cohesion of water
    - - Measured in MPa
      - potential energy of water in a system vs. pure water
      - Components
        
        Pressure potential
        
        pressure of water in a cell
        
        usually positive
        
        Osmotic potential
        
        a solute's effect on water potential
        
        negative
        
        Matrix potential
        
        potential from water's adhesion to undissolved structures
        
        higher in dry soil
      - Water moves from high potential to low potential
      - Equilibrium occurs when water potential is = on either side of membrane
    - - Pressure bomb technique
        
        pressure applied to cut leaf until water appears
    - - Stomatal water evaporation
      - Helps drive water cycle
- - - - Metaphase II
      - Gamete combinations
        
        increase as number of chromosomes increases
      - Metaphase I
    - - Recombinants
        
        combinations don't resemble parents
      - Prophase I
    - - homologs
        
        similar chromosomal partner
        
        shape
        
        hereditary information
        
        size
    - - increased survival chances
      - evolve defense mechanisms
      - New allele combinations
    - - Self-pollination
        
        Ovule fertilized by pollen from same plant
      - Beneficial for genetic variation
      - Cross-pollination
        
        pollen transferred from one plant to another
  - - - Traits can be influenced by multiple alleles
    - - Point mutations
        
        change in a single nucleatoid
      - Chromosome mutations
        
        duplication, deletion, inversions, translocations
    - - heterozygote phenotype is intermediate between phenotypes of homozygous parents
    - - one gene can mask/interfere with another gene's expression
    - - continuous phenotypic variation
    - - genes located closely on chromosome often inherited together
    - - single gene can affect multiple traits
    - - Organisms have more than 2 sets of chromosomes
        
        can mask deleterious genes
  - - - meiosis causes gametes to hold one alle per gene
    - - Genes for different traits assort independaetly
    - - Heterozygous individuals, dominant allele can mask recessive allele
        
        ex. Tt
- - - - R-selected
        
        rapid growth, disturbed environments
      - Growth patterns
        
        Exponential growth
        
        Logistic growth
      - K-selected
        
        stable growth, close to carrying capacity
      - Grime's model of plant strategies
  - - - both species benefit
        
        mutualism
    - - one species benefits/ other not affected
    - - One species negatively impacted/ other unaffected
    - - both species negatively impacted
        
        battle for resources
    - - one species benefits/ other harmed
        
        predator/prey dynamics
- - - - Self-organizing
      - Catalyzes self-replication
      - Information rich
      - DNA
        
        Complex biochemistry
        
        Gene duplication
        
        Lateral transfer
        
        Natural selection #
- - - - Heterotrophy
        
        production of different types of spores
        
        significant evolutionary step
      - Ovule structure
        
        main components
        
        integuments
        
        protective layers surrounding megasporangium (nucellus)
        
        micropyle
        
        opening that allows sperm to fertilize eggs
      - Evidence
        
        fossils show varying level of integument fusion
        
        dating back to Devonian period
        
        indication of gradual evolution of seed structures
      - Key groups
        
        seed ferns
        
        extinct group believed to be the first to develop seeds
        
        progymnosperms
        
        probable ancestors of modern gymnosperms
        
        gymnosperms
        
        various species produce seeds without flowers
        
        angiosperms
        
        flowering plants
        
        monocots
        
        eudicots
      - Protection mechanisms
        
        complete enclosure of megasporangium
        
        protects from desiccation and herbivory
        
        helps developing embryo survive
    - - meiosis and megaspore development
        
        megasporocyte undergoes meiosis to produce 4 megaspores
        
        3 megaspores usually degenerate
        
        retains resources
        
        1 megaspores retained
        
        undergoes mitosis to form megagametophyte
        
        develops into megasporangium
        
        endosporic development provides protection for gametophyte
      - formation of megasporangium
        
        contains megasporocytes
        
        protective integuments
        
        aids in development and protection of megaspores
      - fertilization and embryo formation
        
        sperm swims to egg within megagametophyte
        
        embryo forms
        
        develops inside protective layers of megasporangium
      - Transition from homospory to heterospory
        
        specialization leading to more efficient reproduction
        
        heterospory
        
        production of two different types of spores
        
        microspores
        
        smaller
        
        develop into male gametophytes
        
        megaspores
        
        larger
        
        develop into female gametophytes
      - seed structure development
        
        integuments evolve into seed coat
        
        provide additional protection
        
        megagametophyte serves as nutrient source for embryo
    - - pollen grains structure
        
        exine
        
        protective covering that helps prevent desiccation
        
        some pollen grains develop air bladders
        
        aid in wind dispersal
      - fertilization process
        
        land on female structure
        
        pollen grain grows a pollen tube
        
        tube penetrates megagametophyte
        
        delivers sperm to egg
        
        could take up to a year
      - sperm evolution
        
        early land plants had flagellated sperm
        
        required water to move toward egg
        
        evolution to reduce dependence on water
        
        pollen grains
        
        can be dispersed without water
      - Acquiring nutrients
        
        pollen grains can develop haustoria
        
        absorb nutrients from surroundingn tissue
      - microgametophyte structure
        
        greatly reduced structure
        
        antheria that produce sperm
        
        over time, structures become less prominent
        
        focus on sperm production
      - directional pollen tube growth
        
        growth directed by megagametophyte
        
        2 synergids guide pollen tube to eggs
      - mitosis
        
        generative cell undergoes mitosis
        
        produces 2 sperm nuclei
        
        tube nucleus controls growth of pollen tube
    - - Gymnosperms #
        
        produce naked seeds
        
        seeds exposed on surface of sporophylls
        
        ovules
        
        not enclosed by ovary
        
        structure
        
        integuments
        
        spore wall
        
        nucellus
        
        megagametophyte develops within
      - Angiosperms
        
        flowering plants that produce a seed within an ovary/fruit
        
        double fertilization
        
        one sperm fertilizes egg
        
        another fuses with polar nuclei
        
        forms endosperm
        
        ovules structure
        
        2 integuments surrounding nucellus and megasporangium
  - - - Cotyledons #
        
        seed leaves that provide initial nutrients
        
        gymnosperms typically have multiple
        
        monocots have 1
        
        eudicots have 2
      - seed coat
        
        formed from integuments
        
        protects seed
      - endosperm
        
        specialized nutritive tissue
        
        provides nutrients to embryo
    - - gymnosperms
        
        seeds often exposed with fleshy outer layer
      - angiosperms
        
        undergo double fertilization
        
        process unique to flowering plants
- - - - Evolution of new forms
        
        Familiar features emerge
        
        Photosynthetic organisms
        
        Plant cells
        
        Land plants
        
        Natural selection
        
        Taxonomic groupings
      - Geological strata
        
        Gives clues about descent
        
        Microbial mats
        
        Stromatolite structures
        
        Isotopic signatures suggest photosynthesis
        
        Environmental isotopes
        
        Carbon isotopes
        
        High concentration of C12
- - - - Pyruvate oxidation
- - - - total collection of alleles in population
    - - No migration
      - Large population
      - No mutation
      - Random mating
      - No selection
    - - Genetic drft
        
        random loss of alleles
      - Bottleneck effect
        
        large population experiences drastic reduction in size
      - Mutation
        
        changes in nucleic acids that introduce new alleles
      - Non-random mating
        
        individuals prefer certain traits
      - Migration
        
        alleles move in/out of population
      - Selection
        
        Natural selection
        
        certain genotypes increase fitness
        
        Patterns
        
        Artificial selection
        
        humans selectively breed traits
    - - multiple phenotypes present in a population