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Final Exam - Coggle Diagram

- - - - facilitating the development of plants with increased stature, photosynthetic output, and ability to colonize a greatly expanded range of environmental habitats.
        
        1) delivery of resources (water, essential mineral nutrients, sugars and amino acids) to the various plant organs
        
        , 2) mechanical support
        
        3) communication within the plant.
  - - - very uniform and have an even distribution across sieve areas. narrow pores are necessary in their function in most seedless vascular plants and gymnosperms which lack sieve-tube members and only have sieve cells to transport molecules
        
        have smaller sieve areas, they are still distributed across several cells to still effectively transport material to various tissues within the plant.
    - - Sieve cell associated albuminous cells work between phloem and parenchyma. They connect parenchyma with mature sieve cells to help participate in transport.
        
        can be many alb. cells depending on function of tissue or organ.
  - - - Once true conducting elements evolved, the placement of the food conducting tissue and water conducting tissue varied
        
        consists of the xylem in the center of
        the vascular cylinder surrounded by the phloem found in the lycophytes
        
        primary stem tissues of seed plants (Gymnosperms and Angiosperms) form the characteristic eustele, a cylindrical arrangement of numerous vascular bundles.
  - - - Zea mays stem
        
        Monocotyledonae stem cross section
    - - Helianthus annus
        
        Eudicotyledonae stem cross section
- - - - light energy is used to split water (photolysis) and energize the electrons of the chlorophyll reaction centers. Some of this energy is captured in ATP bonds or the electron carrier NADPH, releasing oxygen as a byproduct.
  - - - independent variables that are continuous are time, temperature, humidity, concentration of some chemical, pH, latitude, wavelength of light, etc.
    - - look at the x-axis
        
        Place your finger on the value for the observation that you are trying to graph and move up the y-axis
        
        Track the y-axis value until the 2 meet (using imaginary perpendicular lines), place the point at the intersection
        
        Once all your point values have been placed, draw a line segment connecting each dot or running through the middle of a cloud of dots (line of best fit)
- - - - Both groups have vascular tissue, independent sporophyte and reproduce via seeds. The evolution of the seeds was a major advantage, resulting in the protection of the microgametophyte and young sporophyte. The transition from Cryptogams to Spermatophyta involved several modifications of the Cryptogram sporangia.
      - Megaspores were retained inside the megasporangium, instead of being released.
      - The megasporangium became fleshy and filled with nutrients. In seed plants, the megasporangium tissue is known as nucellus
      - Megaspore mother cells in each sporangium were reduced to only one, instead of many.
      - Only one of the four megaspores produced via meiosis is retained
      - The megagametophyte remains and develops entirely within the megaspore, and never becomes free-living.
      - The sporophyte embryo remains and develops within the megagametophyte.
      - Sporophyte tissues enclosed the megasporangium, forming integuments around it that will eventually become a protective seed coat. The integuments have only one opening, the micropyle, via which the male can reach the megasporangium.
      - The micropylar apex of the megasporangium is chemically and morphologically modified to better receive microspores/pollen grains.
  - - - the female strobilus (cone) is a bit more complex. Around the central axis are specialized leaves called bracts. Each bract bears fused megasporophylls forming an ovuliferous scale, which is also fused in a pine with the bract (but distinct in fir and larch). The megaspore within the megasporangia undergoes mitosis without cytokinesis, resulting in a multi-nucleate megagametophyte.
    - - After ~1yr, cell walls form as well as archegonia. Each archegonium surrounds a single egg. Basically, resulting in a Matryoshka (Russian nesting doll) from outside to interior: ovuliferous scale, integument, megasporangium, megaspore, megagametophyte, archegonium, and egg. Meanwhile, the pollen has landed, been sucked into the pollen chamber, and is slowly digesting its way through the nucellus to reach the egg.
  - - - The lily is considered a complete flower with both female and male organs. The male reproductive organs consist of stamens which can be broken into two parts: anther and filament.
        The female sexual organ, the carpel can be broken into three parts: stigma, style and ovary. In our microscopic exploration, we will be looking at the flower buds during development through longitudinal and cross sections.
      - lilium anther
        
        lilium ovule
    - - the dominant form of plant today, representing ~80% of extant green plants. While the gymnosperms may boast the oldest and largest organism known, angiosperm diversity and variation in form is difficult to encapsulate. Part of this beauty is attributed to coevolution with pollinators. Evolving from a common ancestor with gymnosperms
- - - - function is the transport of metabolic waste products to the xylem at the center of the tree, where they are stored permanently. This (usually) dark colored, waste storage area of the tree is called heartwood, and can no longer function in water conduction.
    - - lighter colored, water conducting wood.
  - - - the wood of flowering trees, woody eudicots, as maple and oak. often used for furniture
        
        more heterogeneous; it usually has wavy grain, both large and small rays, and both tracheids and vessel elements.
    - - wood of conifers, such as pine and fir, and is used mainly as construction lumber
        
        more homogeneous; i.e. it has straighter grain, uniformly small rays, and lacks vessel elements (i.e. it has tracheids only)
- - - - the cell wall
        
        Robert Hooke got credit for discovered cells
        
        Epidermal cells
        Cork cells were from nonliving tissue.
        Capsicum annuum, bell pepper, has a box-like fruit. The name capsicum derives from the latin for little box, capsula. Annuum derives from year, or annual; so, this describes the plant's annual nature, growing from seed to seed in one year. Often the derivation of a taxonomic name lends clues to a species’ major characteristics.
  - - - The Nucleus, Nucleolus and Vacuole
        
        Nuclei are control centers of cells and house the genetic material. This should appear as a spherical structure within the cytoplasm.
        
        Nucleoli are dense clusters of RNA and proteins within the nucleus; they usually look like darker splotches within the nucleus
        
        Plant cells have a large central vacuole that functions not only in storage but also to help regulate plant cell tonicity. The pink pigment, anthocyanin, occurs in the vacuole of the red onion epidermis. Anthocyanin and related pigments are common non-photosynthetic pigments in plants, can be found in the cells of certain flowers, leaves, stems and fruits.
        
        The cytoplasm is most apparent just inside the cell wall. It likely appears as a clearish, or slightly granular area.
        
        Anthocyanin is a natural pH indicator, ranging in color from pink in acidic solutions through purple and blue in increasingly alkaline solutions.
      - plastids
        
        organelles that have a double membrane with inner stromal fluid in which various metabolism occurs, including synthesis, storage, and export of lipids, amino acids, sugars, iron and pigments. Probably the most familiar of these are chloroplasts, the organelle responsible for photosynthesis.
        
        Leucoplasts and chromoplasts are also common plastids.
        
        All plants contain at least one type of plastid, and plastids have the ability to change characters so that they transition from one type of plastid to another.
        
        All plants contain at least one type of plastid, and plastids have the ability to change characters so that they transition from one type of plastid to another.
      - Chloroplasts are green due to the presence of the photosynthetic pigments chlorophyll. They are the organelles responsible for photosynthesis. While plants also have mitochondria, chloroplasts are on average multiple times larger than this other important metabolic organelle.
- - - - In angiosperms, pollination refers to the transfer of pollen from an anther to a stigma, they are unable to seek out and physically interact with a mate to carry out sexual reproduction. As a result, they must rely on other means to bring the male and female gametes together. In some cases, abiotic (non-living) agents such as wind and water are responsible for pollen transfer.
        the great diversity in angiosperms is thought to be largely a result of coevolution with biotic (living) agents such as animals – insects in particular.
        About 50 million years ago there was a rapid increase in the diversity of flower-visiting insects. This correlates with a rapid increase in angiosperm diversity and is hypothesized to be the primary factor driving angiosperm evolution.
      - Pollination by abiotic agents requires different modifications of the flower to facilitate pollen transfer. This can be very different from pollination by biotic agents. In order to attract animals, a plant must reward the animal for its effort to ensure that it keeps visiting the plant.
        The more attractive a plant is to a pollinator, the more likely the pollinator will visit the plant. The greater the reward for the visit, the more loyal the animal pollinator is likely to be. Flowers have evolved many different ways to attract pollinators and most importantly, facilitate pollen transfer.
        Some clues are visual, like flower color and pattern, flower size, and showy petals and sepals. Some flowers use scents to attract pollinators and foods like nectar and protein-rich pollen to reward them for the visit. Other flowers use pure trickery to attract pollinators under false pretenses.
      - a shoot (stem and leaves) modified for reproduction. Flowers can arise singly or in clusters called inflorescences. When looking at a whole flower, if the floral parts can be arranged so that any cross section of the flower has a mirror image, it is called radially symmetric.
        If the flower only has only one cross section which produces a mirror image, the flower is described as having bilateral symmetry.A stem-like structure called a peduncle supports an inflorescence or a solitary flower.
        Pedicels are the structures which support individual flowers of an inflorescence. The end of the peduncle is often expanded to form a receptacle to which the actual floral parts attach.
  - - - ovules are contained in the ovaries of flowers. After pollination and fertilization of the egg inside the ovule, the ovule develops into a seed and the surrounding ovary develops into a fruit.
      - some cases, ovaries develop into fruits without fertilization of ovules. This kind of fruit development which does not require fertilization is called parthenocarpy and the resulting fruits are called parthenocarpic fruits.
        
        fertilization is required in order to produce viable seed, parthenocarpic fruits do not have seeds. Many of the "seedless" varieties of fruits found in the supermarket
- - - - In sexually reproducing diploid organisms, the cells of each individual has two versions of each chromosome characteristic for the species, one inherited from the mother and one from the father., each individual contributes two alleles to the population’s gene pool for each gene in the genome.
      - If the individual has the homozygous dominant genotype at a given locus, they contribute two dominant alleles to the population gene pool.
      - A heterozygote contributes one dominant allele and one recessive allele. A homozygous recessive individual contributes two recessive alleles to the population gene pool.
  - - - P^2 + 2pq + q^2 = 1
  - - - patterns of natural selection
        
        stabilizing selection: a type of natural selection in which genetic diversity decreases as the population stabilizes on a particular trait valueStabilizing selection results in a decrease of a population ‘s genetic variance when natural selection favors an average phenotype and selects against extreme variations.
        
        directional selection: a mode of natural selection in which a single phenotype is favored, causing the allele frequency to continuously shift in one direction
        
        disruptive selection: (or diversifying selection) a mode of natural selection in which extreme values for a trait are favored over intermediate values
        
        In directional selection, a population’s genetic variance shifts toward a new phenotype when exposed to environmental changes. Diversifying or disruptive selection increases genetic variance when natural selection selects for two or more extreme phenotypes that each have specific advantages.
        In diversifying or disruptive selection, average or intermediate phenotypes are often less fit than either extreme phenotype and are unlikely to feature prominently in a population
- - - - Take a razor blade or scalpel and make an oblique cut through the leaf so that the edge has one layer of epidermis
      - Take the lower epidermis and place on slide
      - Ensure that that bottom epidermis is facing up on the slide and not the inside of the leaf
- - - - All land plants (Embryophytes) have perpetually embryonic tissues
      - later in the evolution of land plants that the plant growth plan became indeterminate. multicellular apical meristems at stem and root tips continually undergo mitosis.
      - Some of the resulting cells remain meristematic, but others differentiate into three transition tissues: protoderm, procambium, and ground meristem.
        
        These transition tissues eventually differentiate into three mature primary tissues; protoderm differentiates into epidermis; procambium differentiates into the vascular tissues (xylem and phloem), and ground meristem differentiates into ground tissue.
      - Root Apical meristem
        
        responsible for water and mineral uptake. distinguishable by root hairs
  - - - 1) the root cap, a sacrificial, protective tissue for the apical meristem behind it
      - 2) the endodermis, which acts like a filter system for water entering the xylem, and
      - 3) the pericycle, which is a meristematic tissue responsible for the production of lateral roots.
    - - large cortex area surrounding the vascular cylinder. area of ground tissue in the center, the pith, that is surrounded by vascular tissue. Surrounding the vascular tissue to the inside of the cortex is a darkly stained circle of cells, the endodermis. The Casparian strip of the endodermis is composed of highly impregnable substances such as lignin and suberin which forces symplastic movement by preventing movement between the cells
    - - mature vascular tissue forms a solid, central, star-shaped core of xylem, with the phloem between the arms of the star. Surrounding the vascular tissue are the pericycle and endodermis. The pericycle is a meristematic tissue responsible for the formation of lateral roots, while the endodermis acts as a "filtering system" for the water being taken up by the roots. The endodermis and all the contents circled by it form a large vascular bundle referred to as the stele.
- - - - Gametophyte
        
        have flat or leafy gametophytes that we recognize as the “plant” individual. They do not have vascular tissue. The unicellular rhizoid helps affix them to the soil surface and do not have vascular tissue. These plants even lack stomata, a feature that won’t be seen until later.
        
        male antheridiophore contains antheridia in which mitosis occurs to produce sperm. The sperm must swim to the female archegoniophore and swim down the neck of the archegonium in order to reach and fertilize the egg.
      - Sporophyte
        
        embryo undergoes mitosis to form the sporophyte that is completely dependent on the gametophyte. Within the sporophyte, sporocytes divide by meiosis to produce spores. The spores disperse and germinate in moist environments, dividing mitotically to form a mature gametophyte. And the process repeats
    - - relegated to underfoot. lack of vascular tissue, but their rhizoids are now multicellular. Stomata can also be found, but only on the sporophytes.
        
        Gametophyte
        
        multicellular gametophytes are often separated into female and male individuals with females finishing off with archegonial heads and males with antheridial heads.
        
        in the archegonia, eggs develop at the bottom of a long neck cupped by the venter, sitting atop a long stalk. Surrounding these reproductive archegonia are sterile hairlike projections called paraphyses.
        
        Paraphyses are also found intermittently with antheridia on the male gametophyte, so that the sperm developing within the antheridium help distinguish the two. The sperm must swim to the egg, similarly to that of the lycophytes.
        
        developing embryo undergoes mitosis, forming a long diploid stalk, seta, atop which can be found a capsule (aka sporangium) within which meiosis occurs, producing spores.
        
        Once the spores disperse, they germinate into a filamentous protonema prior to forming a mature gametophyte.
      - Sporophyte
        
        developing embryo undergoes mitosis, forming a long diploid stalk, seta, atop which can be found a capsule (aka sporangium) within which meiosis occurs, producing spores. sometimes, the capsule is still surrounded by a cap of maternal tissue, calyptra. Once the spores disperse, they germinate into a filamentous
    - - Pteridophyta, includes 2 other large groups :
        Psilotum (club mosses)
        Equisetum (horsetails)
        grouped together as sister taxa within the same phylum.
        
        Gametophyte
        
        spores divide mitotically to form small, independently living gametophytes. Towards the soil surface, multicellular filaments, rhizoids, adhere the gametophyte to the soil.
        
        nestled within the rhizoids are antheridia. Numerous, multi-flagellated sperm will burst from the structure given enough water so that they can swim to the neck of the archegonia.
      - Sporophyte
        
        fertilized egg, a zygote, will divide mitotically , growing and receiving nutrients from the gametophyte
        
        sporophyte is independently living and the most noticeable to us
        
        small groupings of sporangia, called sori. have protective covering called indusium
- - - - NPN
        
        Observations, 3 trees
        
        21 Southern Magnolia, Magnolia grandiflora
        
        48 Sugarberry, Celtis laebigata
        
        72 Northern Red Oak, Quercus rubra
        
        collects phenological data and shares it. uses it to construct climate change models and evaluate with real data
        
        looking for changes in:
        
        Leaves
        
        One or more live, unfolded leaves are visible on the plant
        
        Leaf is considered unfolded
        
        Entire length has emerged from the breaking bud
        
        Leaf stalk (petiole) or leaf base visible at its point of attachment to the stem
        
        Do not include fully dried or dead leaves
        
        What percentage of the canopy is full with leaves?
        
        Ignore dead branches in your estimate
        
        5%, 5-24%, 25-49%, 50-74%, 75-94%, 95% or more
        
        Needles
        
        Deciduous conifer
        
        One or more live, unfolded needle is visible on the plant
        
        Do not include fully dried or dead needles.
        
        What percentage of the canopy is full with needles?
        
        colored leaves
        
        One or more leaves have turned to their late-season colors
        
        Include any that have recently fallen from the plant
        
        Do not include fully dried or dead leaves that remain on the plant
        
        What percentage of canopy is full with colored leaves?
        
        colored needles
        
        Deciduous conifer
        One or more needles have turned to their late-season colors
        
        Falling leaves
        
        One or more leaves are falling or have recently fallen from the plant
        
        Falling needles
        
        Deciduous conifer
        
        One or more needles are falling or have recently fallen from the plant
- - - - Fundamental theory of heredity. Inheritance involves the passing of discrete units of inheritance (genes) from parents to offspring
      - Principle of segregation. During reproduction, the inherited factors (alleles) that determine traits are separated into reproductive cells by a process called meiosis
      - Principle of independent assortment. Genes located on different chromosomes will be inherited independently
    - - dominant recessive