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Research methods, Observations, Designing Observations, Sampling (SORVS),…

- - - - AO3
        
        Strength: More objective & avoids researcher bias
        
        Researcher is not present
        
        Can't influence outcome of findings
        
        Strength: No demand characteristics
        
        Ptts don't know they're being watched
        
        Easier to capture natural behaviour
        
        Weakness: Less insight
        
        Researchers don't get to interact with ptts
        
        Less understanding of ptts and their behaviour
- - - - Observer takes part in the activities with ptts
        
        Researchers get a more hands-on approach to behaviour being studied
        
        AO3
        
        Strength: (Disclosed) Avoids ethical issues
        
        Ptts are aware that they are interacting with psychologist
        
        Would have been asked to give informed consent
        
        Strength: (Undisclosed) Avoids demand characteristics
        
        Ptts don't know they are interacting with the psychologist
        
        Natural behaviour won't change
        
        Weakness: Researcher bias
        
        Researcher could consciously/unconsciously influence outcome of research so findings match hypothesis
        
        Weakness: (Undisclosed) Ethical issues
        
        Lack of informed consent
        
        Ptts may withdraw their data if they find out researcher was with them
        
        1 more item...
- - - - AO3
        
        Strength: Less demand characteristics
        
        Ptts are not aware they are being observed
        
        More likely to act naturally
        
        Weakness: Ethical issues
        
        Lack of informed consent as ptts doesn't know they're being watched
        
        Chance that ptts will withdraw their data after being debriefed
        
        Reduces population validity
- - - - Strength: Avoids ethical issues
        
        Ptts have been made aware they are taking part in a study
        
        Would have been asked to give informed consent
      - Weakness: Encourages demand characteristics
        
        Ptts may pick up on clues by researcher
        
        Natural behaviour changes
        
        Internal validity reduced
- - - - Operationalised Behavioural Categories: Specific components of the target behaviour are broken down into observable components
        
        AO3
        
        Strength: Control over extraneous variables
        
        Experiment done in a lab setting e.g: temperature and lighting can be controlled
        
        Cause and effect relationship between IV & DV can be easily established
        
        Internal validity decreases
        
        Weakness: Demand characteristics
        
        Ptts may change behaviour based on clues given off by reseracher
        
        Weakness: Ethical issues
        
        Lack of informed consent as ptts doesn't know they're being watched
        
        Ptts might withdraw their data, reducing population validity
- - - - AO3
        
        Weakness: Reliability and extraneous variables
        
        Naturalistic experiments are almost impossible to replicate
        
        Hard to check for reliability
        
        Weakness: Ethical issues
        
        Ptts are unaware they are being observed
        
        Lack of informed consent
        
        Ptts may withdraw their data, reducing population validity
        
        Strength: High ecological validity
        
        Natural environment so findings can be generalised beyond the study setting
        
        Strength: No demand characteristics
        
        Ptts are unaware they are being observed
        
        Natural behaviour won't change
- - - - More appropriate for small-scale research with few ptts
        
        AO3
        
        ✅ Rich & Qualitative
        
        ❌ Researcher bias
  - - - AO3
        
        ✅ Quantitative/objective data
        
        ❌ Lacks insight as researchers cannot ask follow-up questions
- - - - Procedure
        
        Researcher designs an observation sheet containing the different behavioural categories
        
        Two observers must have the SAME observation sheet so that they will be looking out for the same behaviour
        
        Observations sheets of the 2 observers are compared to check for consistency
        
        If 2 results are the same/very similar, then they are reliable
        
        If results were NOT consistent, researcher would need to produce clearer behaviour definitions
- - - - Strength
        
        Less likely to encourage demand characteristics
        
        Participants aren't aware that they are being observed
        
        They are more likely to act naturally
      - Weakness
        
        Ethical issues as lack of informed consent + deception if the person is unaware that they are being observed
        
        Ptt may withdraw their data after the debrief
- - - - e.g: People normally overestimate the chances of dying in a plane crash because 1 incident can be so widely publicised
- - - - Expenses on wrongful arrests reduced
        
        Improves efficiency at which criminals are caught
- - - - Government polices now focus on ensuring healthy child development
        
        Helps ensure these children grow up to be productive members of society that can contribute to the economy
        
        Drawbacks
        
        Less workers as some leave on maternity/paternity leave
- - - - Psychological therapies are just as effective but more costly than drug therapies
        
        Economic implications:
        
        NHS saves money and symptoms are treated quicker
        
        People can return to work faster and contribute to the economy
- - - - Variables:
        
        Age
        
        Intelligence
        
        Motivation
        
        Experience
        
        Gender
- - - - Investigator Effects/Demand Characteristics
        
        Investigator effects
        
        Researcher bias:
        
        Researchers naturally have an expectation on what they expect to find
        
        They might consciously/unconsciously influence the research situation
        
        Misinterpret behaviour to fit their hypothesis
        
        Deliberately manipulate data to fit their hypothesis
        
        Observer effects:
        
        Presence of observer can cause ptts to behave differently to how they would normally behave
        
        Interviewer effects:
        
        Presence or personality of the interviewer e.g: age, gender, ethnicity might influence ptts response
        
        Demand characteristics
        
        When ptts pick up on clues given by the researcher and change their behaviour
        
        This can create unnatural behaviour such as:
        
        Participants become nervous and start acting out of character, especially if they think their personality is being assessed
        
        Participants changing behaviour to either help (conform) or hinder (screw you effect) the research
        
        Reducing effects of IE & DC:
        
        Double-blind procedure:
        
        Neither participants or researcher know which condition of the IV they are in
        
        Single-blind procedure:
        
        Participants are not informed on which condition they are placed in e.g: pill with active ingredient or placebo pill
- - - - Wilcoxon T test
        
        Mann-Whitney test
- - - - 3 types of EXPERIMENTAL DESIGN
        
        4 levels of MEASUREMENT DATA
        
        Ordinal
        
        Interval
        
        Nominal
        
        Ratio
        
        Repeated
        
        Matched
        
        Independent
      - Directional
      - Null
      - Non-directional
  - - - 'P' stands for Probability
        
        One tail/two tailed: Alternative term for directional & non-directional hypothesis
        
        5% (0.05) = Most common value for 'P'
      - Compare calculated value to critical value to see if results are significant
- - - - 3. Mann-Whitney 'U' test
        
        4. Spearman's Rho/rank
        
        5. Wilcoxon 'T' test
        
        Lower than critical value = Accept experimental
        
        Higher than critical value = Accept experimental
        
        Lower than critical value = Accept experimental
      - Higher than critical value = Accept experimental
- - - - Discrete data - Distinct categories most simple level of data e.g: colours
        
        Representation: Bar Charts
  - - - Rank order - Order and position within group exits BUT gap between each position is unclear e.g: happiness level
        
        Representation: Histogram
  - - - Key word: SCALE
        
        Scale: Measurements are on a scale & intervals between are known & equal
        
        Can go below zero e.g: thermometer
        
        Representation: Standard deviation graph OR histogram
    - - Key word: ZERO
        
        Scale: Measurements are on a scale & intervals between are known & equal
        
        BUT has true 0 e.g: Weight
        
        Representation: Standard deviation graph OR histogram
- - - - Measure DV for each group
      - Random allocation used
        
        Ensures differences between groups are equally varied
- - - - Ptts all do condition 1
        
        Condition 2
        
        Ptts all do condition 2
- - - - Recruit another group that matches
        
        Experiment done like independent measures
        
        Condition 1
        
        Condition 2
- - - - Most frequent set of data
    - - Total the scores then divide by number of scores
    - - Numerical order then take the middle number
  - - - How the scores are clustered around the mean
    - - Difference between highest and lowest score
- - - - Interviews
      - Questionaires
  - - - Strength:
        
        Easy to analyse and establish patterns
      - Strength:
        
        Objective, factual data that is less susceptible to researcher bias
      - Weakness:
        
        Lacks detail. Can't explain or help psychologists understand more complex behaviour
  - - - Main type of data collected in non-experimental methods
        
        Weakness:
        
        Interpretation of data is subjective
        
        Weakness:
        
        Data analysis is very time consuming
        
        Strength:
        
        Ptt's own words
        
        Data is reach in detail
        
        Allows psychologists to understand complex behaviours
- - - - Structured interview
        
        Questions prepared in advance
        
        Aims to structure ptts responses
        
        Advantages & disadvantages
        
        Advantage:
        
        Less likely to deviate from topic and makes analysis easier
        
        Advantage:
        
        Can be easily repeated because questions are standardised
        
        1 more item...
        
        Advantage:
        
        Easier to analyse than unstructured interview
        
        1 more item...
        
        Disadvantage:
        
        Researchers cannot follow up with new questions
        
        1 more item...
      - Unstructured interview
        
        May contain a general topic area
        
        Questions are NOT fixed
        
        Advantages & disadvantages
        
        Advantage:
        
        Data provided is highly detailed
        
        Advantage:
        
        Interviewer can adapt questions based on answers given by ptts
        
        1 more item...
        
        Disadvantage:
        
        Data is hard to analyse
        
        Disadvantage:
        
        Interview more likely to be affected by interviewer bias
        
        1 more item...
      - AO3
        
        Strength: Free expression
        
        Ptts can freely express themselves, especially in unstructured interviews
        
        Encourages honesty which can lead to more accurate results
        
        Weakness: Social desirability
        
        Ptts may lie to present themselves in a better light
        
        More likely to lie if topic is sensitive
        
        Weakness: Time consuming
        
        individually interviewing every ptts takes time
        
        Unlike questionnaires which can be mass printed and distributed
        
        Strength: Qualitative data
        
        Detailed, quality information can be obtained (qualitative)
        
        Qualitative data has more human meaning than quantitative data
- - - - Spearman's Rho