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China Essay Brainstorm - Coggle Diagram

- - - - despite progress in socio-economic issues for certain demographics, the intersectional identity of migrant women has made it so that the policy changes in modern China has perpetuated and complicated the oppression of migrant women of current young generation
- - - - Motivations for migration: agricultural surplus labour
      - Temporary Residency System (Introduced in early 1980s) (Chan + Zhang)
        
        Legal pathways opening for rural-urban migration
        
        Temporary residence permits, but lack of access to welfare systems (Wu + Treiman)
        
        Instability: deportation, discrimination against temporary workers without documentation, housing, employment
      - Hukou system initially created to slow urbanisation, control labour markets
      - "blue stamp" urban hukou in late 80s => urban Hukou status for investors, their management + technical staff, + families, biggest impact for lower strata (Chan + Zhang)
    - - ability to gain urban hukou dictated by education + Party membership
      - Gendered impact: women less likely to achieve education/ political connection necessary to transition (however chances are better when these are controlled for possibly due to ability to use marriage as channel for obtaining urban hukou)
    - - Lack of access to welfare systems
      - Exacerbation of rural-urban inequalities (disparities between quality of rural vs. urban schools, facilities...) => further motivating rural-urban migration
      - distinction between temporary + permanent residents allows gov. to get around obligations to provide welfare => legitimacy (Pun Ngai)
      - Positive (Chan + Zhang):
        
        allowed gov. to not only control but effectively monitor migration
        
        allowed maintenance a "dual economy" which promoted urban industrialisation by channeling state resources into employment + welfare for urban residents
        
        however this effectiveness in controlling migration has eroded with opening-up + mass migration
    - - Motivations: drawing high-skilled immigrants to urban areas => filtering out migrants
      - Results: discrimination based on skills, education, political affiliation...
    - - https://www.tandfonline.com/doi/pdf/10.1080/10611932.2004.11031662
      - migrants have to pay higher fees for migrant schools or for temporary student status as of 1999
      - Comment on limitations of data
  - - - worse access to education, healthcare in childhood
    - - Creating "supracitizenship conditions" for the wealthy (Hong + Tseng)
    - - Positive impact
        
        Abolition of rural/ urban hukou distinctions
        
        Residence permits giving migrants access to basic public goods (although helps more with family planning + legal aid more than healthcare + education)
      - negative impacts
        
        Compensation policies w/ shifting hukou in return for political loyalty => specifically benefits urban elites over rural-urban migrants
        
        Increased regulation, expulsion of residents without local hukou
        
        no structural change addressing inequalities
    - - https://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/epdf/10.1111/j.1468-2397.2009.00713.x?saml_referrer
      - very low rates of participation in pension + healthcare schemes as of 2011
      - Especially for those with low levels of education
      - although it is higher among women
      - Comment on limitations of data
- - - - End of commune system
        
        Stimulating rural-urban migration
      - End of SOE benefits
        
        maintain some stability during this period, but still welfare benefits weakened through reforms
        
        Privatisation of SOEs => lack of state regulation
        
        Outcompeted through increased international competition
        
        Emphasis on cost-cutting + labour-market flexibility => reduction of welfare benefits
        
        Massive layoffs
      - Privatisation of welfare systems
        
        Decentralisation => shifting responsibilities from state to individuals/ local gov.s
        
        Imposition of user fees for schools making costs excessively high
        
        hospitals "transformed [...] into profit-oriented entities" (Dalen)
    - - low-skilled (migrant) women
        
        More employment opportunities in this era, but in jobs with low status + wages, more vulnerable to exploitation (Harvey)
        
        Lack of stability: "rice bowl of youth" => no benefits after young age
        
        Service industry: (Hasner)
        
        Sexualisation: women's "productivity" intertwined with their alignment with beauty standards
        
        Any upward mobility dependent on adherance to standards, beauty + femininity in contrast to other "lesser" women
      - working-class generally
        
        higher costs for education and healthcare, lack of pension benefits
        
        "medical impoverishment" (Dalen)
      - Positive:
        
        Privatisation of companies + introduction of foreign competition encourages productivity boosts (Mohan)
        
        Higher labour market flexibility w/ layoffs, more competitive companies with cut welfare costs + fewer employees (lower labour costs and thus higher profits)
    - - State-owned enterprises providing employment guarantees + benefits to employees
      - Rural: commune system responsible for welfare provision
      - Welfare dictated by each but unevenly
  - - - inequality
      - aging population
      - low domestic consumption
      - poor working + living conditions
    - - policies
        
        national social insurance programmes for health and pensions (2009 + 2011 pension schemes)
        
        Increased regulation on working conditions
        
        Urban Resident Basic Medical Insurance providing basic medical care to migrants
      - impact
        
        values
        
        wider health insurance coverage
        
        Tax + fee reform cancelling educational fees on parents
        
        limitations
        
        still largely privatised system, now mix of individual financing + gov. subsidies
        
        Abolition of generous pension system for public sector employees
        
        remaining lower pension coverage for migrants (increase from 7 to 32% pension coverage compared to 52 to 62% for other uran and 8 to 47% for rural from 2004 to 2014)
        
        elimination of fees without increased state subsidisation, responsibility of financing welfare remaining on local gov.
        
        lower taxes, mismanagement of funds, lack of funds => lower quality of rural education (new migrants therefore less likely to have competitive educational attainment)
    - - policies
        
        Digitalisation: "e-health and e-learning"
        
        Healthy China 2030
        
        digitalisation, improving health information systems
        
        strengthening local-level primary health services
        
        increasing responsibility of non-state actors in healthcare
      - impact
        
        values
        
        Increased availability of funds for public services
        
        limitations
        
        Responsibility for healthcare still on "social forces" over gov.
        
        "nonbasic" services still marketised
        
        increasing % private institutions
    - - https://equityhealthj.biomedcentral.com/articles/10.1186/s12939-021-01480-9
      - Showing increasing out of pocket expenditures from 2011-2015
      - For women outpatient is higher, while inpatient is lower in general
      - Education level: higher educational attainment actually lowers healthcare expenses
    - - changes to gov. vs. out-of-pocket spending over time
- - - - how and why do certain policies benefit certain groups over others
  - - - policy implications?