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approaches paper 2, APPROACHES, RESEARCH METHODS, BIOPSYCHOLOGY - Coggle…

- - - - -untestable concepts - popper argued it doesnt meet the scientific criterion of falsification - not open to empircal testing - unconscious level = difficult or impossible to test - subjective study of individuals such as little hands which also makes it difficult to make universal claims about human behaviour
        suggests his theory was pseudoscientific rather than established fact
      - -psychic determinism : much of our behaviour is determined by unconscious conflicts rooted in childhood, believing no such thing as an accident - dismisses any possible influence of free will on behaviour
- - - - science = building knowledge through systematic and objective measurement - aim to discover general laws
      - 1900s behaviourists : introspection questioned by WATSON because it was subjective
        SKINNER AND WATSON proposed truly scientific psychology should only study observable phenomena
        
        +is scientific like natural sciences - cognitive, learning approaches, and biological approach all rely on the use of scientific methods e.g lab studies - established itself as a scientific discipline
        
        -not all approaches use objective methods - humanistic rejects scientific approach, psychodynamic uses case study method, and human beings respond to demand characteristics
        scientific approach not always possible or desirable
      - 1950s cognitive approach : digital revolution, likened mind to computer, multi-store model, highly scientific
      - 1980s biological : advances in technology to investigate physiological processes as they happen e.g fMRI and EEG and genetic testing
      - wundt, psychodynamic, behaviourist, humanistic, cognitive, social learning theory, biological, cognitive neuroscience
- - - - classical conditioning - PAVLOV'S research :
        CC = learning through association
        showed dogs could be conditioned to salivate to the sound of a bell if that sound was repeatedly presented at the same time as they were given food
        gradually associated bell (neutral stimulus) with food (unconditioned stimulus) to produce the salivation response (conditioned response)
        if bell (conditioned stimulus) is repeatedly presented without food, salivation (conditioned response) will slowly disappear - called extinction - if salivates to the sound of the bell after this at a later time - spontaneous recovery
        NS - NR
        US - UR
        NS + US - UR
        CS - CR
        
        LITTLE ALBERT - WATSON AND RAYNER : 11 month albert played with a white rat as a metal bar was struck with a hammer just behind his head - terrified him - rat and noise were paired enough times - rat alone was sufficient to cause albert distress
        shows how neutral stimulus (rat) can elicit fear (conditioned response) by being associated with an event that naturally produces fear (the loud bang, the unconditioned stimulus)
        showed fear response to similar white, furry stimuli
        
        SKINNER BOX - every time the rat activated a lever (or pecked at a disc if pigeon) within the box it was rewarded a food pellet - from then on the naimal would continue to perform the behaviour = positive reinforcement
        can be conditioned to perform the same behaviour to avoid an unpleasant stimulus e,g an electric shock
        = negative reinforcement
      - operant conditioning - SKINNER's research - learning is an active process whereby human and animals operate on their environment - behaviour is shaped by consequences
        positive reinforcement - reward e.g praise
        negative reinforcement - avoid something unpleasant, outcome is positive e,g handing in essay
        punishment - unpleasant consequence
        positive and negative reinforcement increase likelihood behaviour will be repeated
    - - +real world application - token economy systems - rewarding appropriate behaviour with tokens that can be exchanged for privileges - treatment of phobias - increases value
      - -environmental determinism - sees all behaviour as conditioned by past conditioning experiences - everything we do is the sum total of our reinforcement history - ignores free will (free will is an illusion (skinner)) - extreme
      - -ethical issues - hard, cramped conditions and kept below weight so they were always hungry - revolutionised psychology and had many practical real world benefits in the penal system, but is little consolation to the animals - cost benefit analysis, unlikely to have passed if judged by modern standards
- - - - bugelski and alampay the rat man - 2 participants were shown either a number of different faces or a number of different adults. they were then shown the ambigious figure, rat man, below.
        those who saw sequence of faces were more likely to perceive the figure as a man, whereas participants who saw a sequence were more likely to percieve the figure as a rat - schema
    - - +real work application - dominant approach in psychology - AI, robots - revolutionise how we may live - applied to treatment of depression and has also improved the reliability of eye witness testimony
      - -machine reductionism : ignores influence of human emotion and motivation on the cognitive system and how this may affect our ability to process information
        e.g research has found that human memory may be affected by emotional factors such as the influence of anxiety on eyewitnesses - weakens validity
- - - - genotype and phenotype : genotype = set of genes a person possesses, genetic makeup
        phenotype = the way genes are expressed through physical, behavioural and psychological characteristics determined by both genes and the environment
      - evolution and behaviour : darwin, natural selection - genetically determined behaviour that enhances survival and reproduction will continue in future generations
      - .
        
        evaluation
        
        +real world application - neurochemical processes - psychoactive drugs - antidepressant drugs that increase levels of neurotransmitter serotonin at synapses in the brain - better able to manage condition
        
        -CP: do not work for everyone : cipriani et al compared 21 antidepressant drugs and found wide variations in effectiveness - effects were mainly moddest - suggests brain chemistry alone may not account for all cases of depression
        
        +scientific methods - precise and highly objective - fMRIs and EEGs - advances mean its possible to accurately measure physiological and neural processes in ways that are not open to bias
        
        -biological determinism - sees human behaviour as governed by internal, genetic causes over which we have no control -
        but phenotype is heavily influenced by the environment
        problematic when considering crime
        suggests it is too simplistic and ignores the mediating effects of the environment
- - - - -cultural bias - individual freedom, autonomy and personal growth - much more associated with countries with individualist tendencies.
        countries with collectivist tendencies emphasise more the needs of the group and interdependence - ideals of humanistic psychology may not be as important as in others
        
        does not apply universally
- - - - reductionism / holism
        
        reductionism = belief that human behaviour can be most effectively explained by breaking it down into constituent parts
        holism = phenomena are best understood by looking at the interplay and interaction of many different factors
        
        behaviourism - reductionist - breaks up complex behaviour into stimulus response units for testing in lab
        biological - reductionist - explains human behaviour and psychological states at the level of the gene or neuron
        psychodynamic - reduces much of our behaviour to the influence of sexual drives and biological instincts BUT personality is a dynamic interaction between the 3 parts of the personality is often viewed as a more holistic explanation
        cognitive approach - machine reductionist - presents people as information processing systems ignoring the influence of emotion on behaviour
        SLT - reduce complex learning to imitation, modelling etc but do place emphasis on cognitive factors that mediate learning, and how these interact with external influences
        humanistic - holistic - investigating all aspects of the individual, including the effects of interaction with others and wider society
      - views on development
        
        psychodynamic approach - most coherent, tying concepts and process to specific psychosexual stages determined by age but saw little development once a child enters the genital stage
        cognitive approach - as part of their intellectual development, children form increasingly complex schema
        biological approach - principle of maturation whereby genetically determined changes in a child physiological status influence psychological and behavioural characteristics
        humanistic - development of self ongoing - childhood important and their relationship with parents is especially important in terms of unconditional positive regard
        behaviourist and SLT - don't offer coherent stages but see processes that underpin learning as continuous, occurring at any age
      - determinism (+ free will)
        
        determinism = all behaviour has an internal or external cause and is thus predictable
        
        behaviourist - all behaviour is environmentally determined by external influences e.g operant conditioning
        biological - genetic determinism - assumption that much of our behaviour is directed by innate influences
        psychodynamic - psychic determinism - unconscious forces that drive our behaviour are the ultimate cause of behaviour and that these are simply rationalised by our conscious minds
        :arrow_up: hard determinism
        :arrow_down: soft determinism
        cognitive approach - choosers of our own thoughts and behaviours yet these choices can only operate within the limits of what we know and have experienced
        SLT - reciprocal determinism - the idea that as well as being influenced by the environment, we also exert some influence upon it through the behaviours we choose to perform
        humanistic - free will - operate as active agents who determine their own development
      - explanation and treatment of psychological disorders
        
        behaviourist - abnormality arising from maladaptive or faulty learning in the sense that inappropriate or destructive patterns of behaviour have been reinforced :
        behaviour therapies such as systematic desensitisation, which aim to condition new, more healthy responses, have been applied successfully to the treatment of phobias
        SLT - little application but modelling and observational learning have been used to explain how negative behaviours such as aggression may be learned through the influence of dysfunctional role models
        Freud - saw anxiety disorders as emerging from unconscious conflict , childhood trauma and the overuse of defense mechanisms
        psychoanalysis has had some success as a therapy but is not appropriate for everyone because it requires a considerable input from the patient in terms of time and also ability to talk and reflect on emotions
        cognitive - cognitive therapy - more effective and applicable, especially when combined with behaviour therapy as CBT - aims to identify and eradicate faulty thinking which is assumed to be the root cause of maladaptive behaviour
        humanistic - counselling based on rogers philosophy that closing the gap betwen the self concept and the ideal self will increase self esteem and stimulate personal growth
        biologiccal approach - drug therapy which regulates chemical imbalances in the brain
      - nature versus nurture
        
        behaviourist - blank slates at birth - all behaviour comes through learned associations and reinforcement
        SLT - observation and imitation
        biological approach - behaviour is the result of a genetic blueprint that we inherit from our parents (genotype) though the way that it is expressed is influenced by the environment (phenotype)
        psychodynamic - behaviour driven by biological drives and instincts + relationships with parents play fundamental role in future development
        humanistic - regard parents, friends and wider society as having a critical impact on the persons self concept
        cognitive - recognise many information processing abilities and schema are innate, but they are constantly refined through experience