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forensic psychology - Coggle Diagram

- - - - E = extravert
      - P = psychotic
      - N = Neurotic
    - - extravert
        
        Under-active nervous system
        
        Seek excitement, stimulation, engage risk-taking behaviour, do not easily learn from mistakes
      - Neurotic
        
        Reactive sympathetic nervous systems (react to fight or flight quickly)
        
        Individuals have a high level of reactivity in the sympathetic nervous system, they respond quickly to situations where there is threat, this means they tend to be overanxious and jumpy, there general instability makes there behaviour hard to predict.
      - psychotic
        
        Higher levels of testosterone
        
        Individuals are suggested to have a higher level of testosterone and are unemotional and are prone to aggression
    - - strength
        
        Supporting evidence - Farrington et al. (1982) conducted meta-analysis and reported offenders tend to measure high on psychoticism, but not for extraversion and neuroticism. They also found little evidence of consistent evidence in EEG measures (used to measure cortical arousal) between extraverts and introverts.
        
        standardised - the EPI is a standardised test which is easy to replicate in large numbers and has good reliability
        
        holistic / interactionist - attempts to combine biological and psychological explanations for criminality
      - limitation
        
        reductionist - e
        
        Reductionist - human behaviour does not fit into dimensions or categories and the chart oversimplifies the behaviour of criminals into three categories
  - - - pre conventional level
        stage 1:Obedience and Punishment – Morality is based on avoiding punishment. Right and wrong are determined by consequences.
        stage 2: Self-Interest – Decisions are guided by rewards and personal gain. People follow rules when it benefits them.
      - conventional level
        Stage 3: Interpersonal Relationships – Morality revolves around social expectations and seeking approval. People strive to be “good” in others’ eyes.
        stage 4: Maintaining Social Order – Laws and rules are important. People believe in maintaining order and respecting authority.
      - post conventional level
        Stage 5: Social Contract – Laws are seen as flexible. Justice and individual rights take precedence over rigid laws.
        Stage 6: Universal Ethical Principles – Moral reasoning is guided by deeply held ethical principles, such as justice and equality, even if they go against laws or social norms.
  - - - A hostile attribution bias (HAB) could be defined as a tendency to interpret neutral (or possibly even friendly) behaviour from others as threatening, menacing or dangerous
    - - Minimisation refers to the down playing of an offence by the offender, probably as a way of reducing (minimising) guilt, shame and responsibility for the offence
  - - - Criminal behaviour is learned, not inherited
      - Criminal behaviour is learned via interaction with others
      - The biggest influence comes from the closest, most intimate relationships
      - It is possible to learn criminal ‘tricks of the trade from others
      - It is possible to learn a criminal mindset from others
      - Criminality is strengthened by repeated exposure to criminals
      - Contact with criminals will vary and not necessarily be constant
      - People learn criminality in the same way that they learn anything i.e. by observation, repetition, imitation, internalisation
    - - Farrington et al.(2006) -
        
        this groundbreaking longitudinal study into familial transmission of crime
        
        used a sample of boys from South London and found that key risk factors to them turning to crime
        
        included having a convicted parent, coming from a large family living in poverty and having low education
    - - strength
        
        interactionist approach
        
        Supporting evidence that offending behaviour can be learnt through relationships and associations
      - weakness
        
        deterministic - just following on and picking up criminal behaviour
  - - - super ego
        
        Internalised sense of right and wrong. Based on the morality principle. Represents moral standards of child's same-sex parent
        
        weak super ego - If same-sex parent is absent during phallic stage, child cannot internalise fully-formed Superego and no opportunity for identification.
        
        deviant super ego - If superego that child internalises has immoral or deviant values, would led to offending behaviour. For example, a boy who is raised by a criminal farther is likely not to see this as offending behaviour
        
        over harsh super ego - An excessively punitive or harsh parenting style leads to a child with an over harsh super ego, which is crippled by guilt and anxiety. May unconsciously drive individual to perform criminal acts to satisfy their needs for punishment
      - ego
        
        Works on reality principle. Mediator between two parts of personality- manages demands of ID and SUPEREGO
      - id
        
        Operates on the pleasure drive. Unconscious instincts and drives. Entirely selfish and demands gratification of needs.
    - - failure to attach to PCG early on causes affection-less psychopathy which primes individuals to become offenders as they are impulsive and risk taking
    - - strength
        
        supporting evidence - Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation (44 thieves study)
        
        real world application - studied to create therapies for children in institute's with afectionless psychopathy
      - weakness
        
        not open to empirical testing - psychodynamic explanations are not observable and are based on inference - subjective
        
        biologically reductionist - fails to consider biological aspects of offending and relies on environment
- - - - Deterrence
        
        the unpleasant prison experience is designed to put off the individual, and society at large, from engaging in offending behaviour.
      - incapacitation
        
        the offender is taken out of society to prevent them from reoffending in order to protect the public, especially from those who may not be capable of controlling their behaviour.
      - Rehabilitation
        
        the offender can be reformed and made into a better person through some form of education (skills or training) or therapy. They should leave prison better adjusted and ready to take their place back in society
      - retribution
        
        society is enacting revenge for the crime by making the offender suffer, and this should be proportionate to the seriousness of the crime. The victim/family ten feel a sense of justice being done.
    - - depression (due to loneliness and boredom)
      - suicide and self-harm (particularly at the beginning of incarceration)
      - psychotic disorders (e.g. many prisoners have been found to suffer hallucinations and delusions)
      - anxiety disorders (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder)
    - - One limitation of custodial sentencing is that research has found the negative psychological effects could outweigh the benefits of the system.
      - conflicting evidence - due to differential association theory prisoners may learn and pick up skills from other prisoners
      - may act as a short term solution / shock
  - - - supporting evidence - Hobbs & Holt observed 125 delinquent males in 4 cottages, 1 cottage being the control group (without tokens)good behaviour in the other 3 cottages boosted. by 27% after implementing token economy
      - only short term - outside of prison there is no token economy so may not feel motivated to keep up good behaviour
  - - - cognitive preparation
        
        Irrational thoughts and likely triggers to anger are identified and challenged e.g. ‘the way in which someone speaks to you does not need to be interpreted as a challenge
      - skill acquisition
        
        A range of skills are learned which are all designed to help the offender deal with potentially anger-inducing situations e.g. breathing, relaxation, reframing confrontational situations, self-talk etc.
      - application practice
        
        The offender and therapist engage in role-play to test the degree to which the offender is able to put their newly learned skills into practice e.g. ‘I will deliberately provoke you in this scenario and you will have to respond calmly to the provocation in order to de-escalate the situation’
    - - There is research evidence to support the effectiveness of anger management as a way of dealing with offending behaviour.
        
        Ireland (2004) found significant improvements in an experimental group who had 12 one-hour anger management sessions when reassessed 8 weeks after baseline measures and no changes in the control group over that time period.
      - Anger management is more expensive and requires more commitment than other methods of dealing with offending behaviour.
        
        They are expensive to run because they require highly trained specialists who are used to dealing with violent offenders. Many prisons don’t have the resources to fund such programmes. Additionally, its success relies on the commitment of those who participate, and this may be a problem in offenders who are uncooperative and apathetic.
      - Anger management may not be effective in the long-term.
        
        Blackburn (1993) pointed out that whilst anger management may have a noticeable effect on the conduct of offenders in the short-term, there is very little evidence that it reduces recidivism in the long-term.
  - - - rehabilitative rather than punitive
      - the 5 Rs
        
        relationship
        
        the offender must take responsibility for their actions, even if the harm inflicted on the victim was unintentional
        
        Responsibility
        
        the offender has damaged the relationship not only with the victim but with society so it is necessary for the offender to feel accountable for their actions so that the relationship can be healed
        
        reperation
        
        the offender must do what they can to repair the damage they have done (either practically and/or emotionally) and the victim must banish thoughts of revenge and punishment and instead embrace positive moves forward (which could involve forgiveness)
        
        Reintegration
        
        the offender becomes part of the community and is accepted by that community with the emphasis on positive, active outcomes
        
        respect
        
        all participants in the RJ process should show respect towards each other - even if this is difficult at times - and this is achieved via active listening and trying to understand the perspective of the other person
      - evaluation
        
        strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        Sherman (2007) reviewed 20 studies of face-to-face restorative justice in the UK, USA and Australia. All studies showed reduced reoffending and none were linked to higher reoffending. In one of the studies, reoffending was 11%, compared to 37% for a matched control group
        
        limitation
        
        socially sensitive
        
        RJ is not appropriate or suitable for all types of crime: in cases of domestic abuse the offender coming face to face with the victim may perpetuate the trauma for the victim and give the offender another chance to assert power and dominance over the victim
        
        costly
        
        RJ is expensive, time-consuming and requires a highly skilled, trained mediator to run the sessions thus it is unlikely to be available to everyone who needs it
- - - - organised
        
        evidence of crime being planned
        
        very little physical evidence
        
        victim may have been restrained with own tools
        
        likley victim is a stranger
        
        indication that offender has exercised control
        
        victims body may have been moved
        
        characteristics
        
        higher IQ
        
        socially competent
        
        likely to be in a relationship
        
        employed
      - disorganised
        
        crime scene is chaotic with no evidence of planning
        
        physical evidence may be abundant
        
        offedners may have to improvise and use tools at scene
        
        victim could be a stranger or known
        
        exercised little to no control at the scene
        
        little to no attempt to move the victim
        
        characteristics
        
        lower IQ
        
        unemployed
        
        problems keeping relationships
        
        likely to have been abused as a child
        
        socially incompetent
    - - reviewing crime scene
      - categorising offender
      - Reconstructing the crime scene due to the evidence
      - producing profile of offender
    - - strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        Canter et al. (2004) analysed 100 US murders by different serial killers. They examined 39 aspects of serial killing, such as torture, attempt to conceal body, murder weapon, and cause of death. The study found that many serial killings shared features consistent with the organised offender typology.
        
        real world application
        
        Meketa reports that top-down profiling recently applied to burglary as well as murder crimes, 85% rise in solved cases in three US states. Adds two new categories: interpersonal and opportunistic- means wide application to range of crimes
      - weakness
        
        methodology issues
        
        FBI profiling developed using interviews and small sample studies- no standardised interview questions used and no random sample selected- lack of reliability and more likely to alter/ give in to social desirability
        
        conflicting evidence
        
        Snook et al. (2007) conducted a meta-analysis of profiling research and concluded that most profiling was based on little more than common-sense justifications and that profilers were not significantly better at predicting offence behaviours than non-profilers, but were slightly better at identifying overall offender characteristics
  - - - interpersonal coherence - how offender behaved at crime scene
      - significance of time and place
      - forensic awareness
    - - used to analyse locations of offences
      - used along side investigative psychology to create profile
      - assumes offender fall into 2 categories
        
        commuters
        
        commit crimes away from there neighbourhood
        
        marauders
        
        offenders who commit crimes within there neighbourhood
      - circle theory
        
        drawing a circle around the seemingly linked offences
    - - strengths
        
        Supporting evidence for investigative psychology
        
        • Canter and Heritage conducted analysis 66 sexual assault cases- several behaviours identified as common in different samples of behaviour, such as a lack of reaction to victims at crime scene. Each individual displayed characteristics pattern of behaviour (supports the idea that people are consistent in behaviour and patterns can be established)
        
        Supporting evidence geographical profiling
        
        • Canter and Lundrigan- collated information 120 murder cases in US- found location of each body disposal created a centre of gravity- suggested that offenders created a circular effect around their home base
        
        Considered more 'scientific' and empirical approach
        
        • Data driven approach emerges as investigator engages in rigorous scrutiny of details of offence and compares to data on previous crime scenes, rather than using qualitative data
      - weakness
        
        other factors required
        
        • Recording of data from crimes/ offenders not always accurate, which lowers validity of data- may be dishonest or reported inaccurately. 75% crimes not even reported to the police.
        
        conflicting evidence
        
        • Kocsis et al. (2002) tested the profiling skills of various police professionals compared to a sample of Chemistry students: the Chemistry students produced the most accurate profiles (interestingly the more experienced the police professionals were, the more inaccurate their profiles were) hence profiling may involve little more than guesswork
- - - - treated many offenders and noticed physical characteristics they all shared in common
        
        blood shot eyes
        
        thin lips
        
        enlarged forehead
        
        big ears
      - claimed that criminals were born not made and that criminals could be identified by analysing there face
      - evaluation
        
        strength
        
        real world application
        
        Contribution to criminology - shifted the emphasis in crime research away from moralistic discourse (offenders being judged as wicked and evil) and trued to develop a more scientific approach. ie studying biological aspects of ofenders
        
        weakness
        
        socially sensitive
        
        Delisi questioned Lombroso's explanation and highlighted the racist undertones- many of the features identified as atavistic are more typically found among those of African descent- implies more likely to be offenders/ criminals
        
        nature vs nurture
        
        deterministic - Raises the argument of whether criminals are born or made- atavistic form suggests innate predisposition to be an offender and crime has a biological cause- could also be influenced by poverty etc
  - - - Genetic explanations for criminality suggest that there are some underlying genetic abnormalities which cause structural and functional differences in the 'criminal brain'.
      - assumes mutations within a specific gene or a combination of genes may be a key contributor in determining criminals
      - One way in which genetics could potentially influence offending behaviour is by causing abnormal monoamine metabolism. One genetic abnormality affecting serotonin metabolism is the MAOA gene.
      - investigate through twin studies, concordance rates are measured between MZ & DZ twins
    - - neural explanations revolve around the idea that criminal behaviour is a result of abnormalities within the brain and the nervous system
      - A neural explanation of criminality assumes that specific neurotransmitters may be a key contributory factor in determining criminal behaviour in an individual e.g. heightened levels of dopamine leading to reward-seeking behaviour
      - The neurotransmitter serotonin is thought to regulate mood and impulsivity, so if levels of serotonin are unstable, then this may lead to increased impulsivity and disturbed mood
      - Structural differences in the brain may also play a role in offending behaviour, particularly with regard to the limbic system
        
        The limbic system is a group of brain structures that control emotions, memory, and behaviour. It helps regulate stress, motivation, and decision-making.
        
        amygdala processes emotional info
        
        research suggests smaller amygdala less sympathy
        
        pre frontal cortex - thought to regulate and inhibit impulsive behaviour which is linked to offending
        
        PET scans proved this by doing questionnaires with impulsive murders
      - investigations
        
        Raine (1993)found a 52% concordance rate for criminality between MZ twins comp
        
        Brunner(1993)identified a mutation in the MAOA gene which disturbed the levels of key neurotransmitters such as serotonin which he linked to the anti-social behaviour and low IQ of a group of males from one family in the Netherlands
    - - strengths
        
        scientific supporting evidence - using quantitative methods gather objective data from PET scans , establishing general laws about offending behaviour
        
        supporting evidence - genetic explanations of offending behaviour e.g. Christiansen's (1977)twin study used a sample of 3,500 twins and found concordance for criminality was higher for MZ twins
      - limitations
        
        Biologically reductionist - reducing offending behaviour, to simply the genetics that someone inherits
        
        Socially sensitive - labelling specific abnormalities within genes may lead to harmful stereotyping of people with APD or ADHD. Self fulfilling prophecy - individuals "living up to" biological stereotypes