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gender - Coggle Diagram

- - - - • High levels after giving birth linked to maternal caregiving
        • Some experience heightened emotions and irritability during menstrual cycle
    - - • Hormone from the androgen group which is produced mainly in the male testes
      - • 10X more likely in males than females (present in small quantities in females)
      - • Controls development of male sex organs during foetal development
      - • Linked to aggression and larger muscle development
    - - • Typically produced by women much more then men
      - • Stimulates lactation allowing for breast feeding
      - • Reduces stress hormone cortisol
      - • "love hormone"
  - - - supporting evidence
        
        Research from wang et al suggests that male hypogonadism is a condition caused by a man's testes failing to produce normal levels of testosterone. They gave 227 hypogonadal men testosterone therapy for 180 days, which lead to changes in body shape, muscle strength, sexual function and libido- shows testosterone exerts direct influence over male sexual around, physical development etc
      - real world application
        
        Understanding of how hormones influence gendered behaviour, such as maternal behaviour or aggression, can lead to development of hormonal treatments for parenting disorders, as well as medication and therapies to treat aggression levels
    - - conflicting evidence
        
        Darl O'Connor increased testosterone levels in healthy young men and found no significant increases in the interactional or non-interactional components of sexual behaviour in participants- also no changes in aggression or anger levels =. Suggests changes or increases in hormones may not alter behaviour
      - biologically deterministic
        
        Implies that gender identity is determined solely by biological factors such as sex chromosomes and hormone levels, meaning individual has no control or freedom over gender expression
  - - - Klinefelter syndrome is a genetic condition where males are born with an extra X chromosome (XXY instead of XY). This can lead to symptoms such as delayed development, infertility, reduced testosterone levels, and physical traits like taller stature, broader hips, and less facial and body hair2. Many individuals with Klinefelter syndrome may not realise they have it, as symptoms can be mild or overlooked until adulthood and often results in testosterone therapy
      - characteristics
        
        taller than average
        reduced muscle mass
        less body hair
        small firm testicles
        delayed puberty
        
        learning difficulties
        speech and language delays
        attention deficit
        autism
    - - approximately 1 in 5000 biological females are affected. Caused by an absence of one of the X sex chromosomes- referred to as XO. Individuals have 45 chromosomes rather than 46.
        
        missing Y so develop as females
      - characteristics
        
        Delayed onset of puberty and underdeveloped ovaries
        leading to menstruation problems and infertility
        Shortin height, with a webbed neck, narrow hips and
        broad shoulders
        Often have heart and kidney abnormalities
        
        Usually of average or above average cognitive ability and with a high level of verbal skill
        Some social adjustment problems due to others’ responses to their appearance
    - - strength
        
        real world application
        
        For example, research has suggested that those who had been identified with Klinefelter’s syndrome and treated from a young age had significant benefits compared to those had been diagnosed in adulthood.
        
        supporting evidence
        
        empirical methods of testing such as scientific scanning methods is objective
      - limitation
        
        socially sensitive
        
        For example, although receiving a diagnosis can lead to earlier and effective treatment, it could become a self-fulfilling prophecy in which individuals feel limited in their capabilities, and others stereotype or stigmatise them.
        
        sampling problems
        
        In general, only individuals with the most severe symptoms are identified and therefore the picture of typical symptoms may be distorted. Researchers reported that studies following XXY individuals from birth have found a more accurate picture of the characteristics and many do not experience significant cognitive problems
- - - - due to biological maturation - brain becomes more developed
    - - gender identity
        
        2 years old
        
        Children recognise that they are female or male and learn the gender labels ‘girl’ and ‘boy’
        
        not aware sex is permanent
        
        simple labelling
      - gender stability
        
        4 years old
        
        realisation they stay the same gender
        
        can not comprehend external changes or appearance
        
        males with long hair / female builder
      - gender constancy
        
        6 years old
        
        realise gender is constant
        
        not fooled by other peoples change in appearance
        
        seek same sex role models
    - - strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        Slaby and Frey (1975) questioned 55 children from age 2-5 to assess their level of gender understanding. They asked questions such as ‘when you grow up, will you be a mummy or daddy?’, ‘were you a little girl or a little boy when you were a baby?’, ‘if you played football, would you be a boy or a girl?’ and asked them to point to which one was them out of a picture of a boy and girl. They also measured how long the children spent watching the male and female of split-screen images of them performing the same tasks. They found that the answers given by children showed that they did not recognise that gender was stable over time until they were three or four years old as Kohlberg predicted. The oldest children scored highly on gender constancy and spent longer looking at the model who was the same sex as them.
      - limitation
        
        Methodological issues
        
        developed using interviews with children who were, in some cases, as young as two or three. Although the questions were tailored towards the particular age group he was dealing with, Kohlberg may not have acknowledged that very young children lack the vocabulary required to express their understanding
  - - - in group
        
        schemas that socialise the child into gender-consistent behaviour
        
        identifiable with that child
        
        male behaviour for boys
      - out group
        
        schemas are recognised as inconsistent with the child’s in-group and are initially ignored
    - - strength
        
        supporting research for in/out group
        
        Martin and Halverson (1983) found that children under 6 were more likely to remember photographs of gender-consistent behaviour than photographs of gender-inconsistent behaviour when tested a week later. Children tended to change the sex of the person carrying out the gender-inconsistent activity when asked to recall them.
        
        high generalisability
        
        Cherry argues that gender schema not only influences how people process information but also what accounts as cultural appropriate gender behaviour. In more traditional cultures, where women might be expected to take on more traditional nurturing roles, will raise children who form gender schemas which are consistent with this view
      - limitation
        
        One limitation of the gender schema theory is that gender identity may develop earlier than the theory suggested
        
        A longitudinal study of 82 children looked at the onset of gender identity- data was obtained from weekly reports from mothers on their children's language from age 9-21 months, alongside analysis of the children's play. On average, children labelled themselves as either boy or girl at around 19 months, as soon as they could communicate
        
        psychologically reductionist
        
        For example, biological explanations of sex and gender focus on the way in which sex chromosomes are responsible for the production of hormones in both males and females, such as testosterone and oestrogen, which in turns influence the development of different physical and psychological characteristics. Higher levels of testosterone in males can lead to increased libido and aggression levels.
  - - - believed that children were born gender-neutral and and their gender identity developed in unconscious psychosexual stages.
        
        psycho-sexual stages
        
        oral
        
        0-18 months
        
        focus of libido is mouth
        
        breast-feeding
        
        become fixated due to over/under feeding
        
        fixation here could lead to smoking, biting nails, being sarcastic and critical as an adult.
        
        anal
        
        18 months - 3 years
        
        The focus of Libido is on the anus as this is when potty training takes place.
        
        ego develops as parents impose restrictions
        
        gains pleasure from expulsion/retention of faeces
        
        fixation due to lax/ strict potty training
        
        leads to anal personalities
        
        phallic
        
        3-6 years
        
        focus and pleasure on genitals
        
        superego develops through resolution of the Oedipus or Electra complex
        
        Identification with same sex parent leads to formation of gender identity.
        
        Phallic personality – narcissistic and reckless.
        
        latent
        
        6-12 years
        
        sexual desires remain dormant
        
        children focus on social, intellectual, and skill development
        
        genital
        
        puberty onwards
        
        Sexual desires become conscious
        
        the id makes powerful demands in the form of heterosexual desires
        
        The opposite sex is now needed to satisfy the libido
      - oedipus complex
        
        According to Freud,the Oedipus complex occurs when the small boy’s desire for his mother results in
        him wanting to take the place of his father
        
        The desire the small boy has for his mother causes castration anxiety since he believes that if his father discovers this desire, the father will castrate the son so instead gives up & identifies with father
      - electra complex
        
        the daughter’s desire for her father and her realisation that she does not have a penis (penis envy) which leads her to wish that she was a boy
        
        daughter begins to identify with mother as part of her in group and take gender role
      - Internalisation is the the incorporation of the same-sex parent into an individual’s personality
      - Identifcation is the process of acquiring the characteristics of the same-sex parent.
      - evaluations
        
        strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        Little Hans' case study- Freud interpreted the fear of being bitten by a horse as representing his fear of castration by his father because of Hans’ love for his mother. He suggested this was an unconscious defence mechanism, known as displacement.
        
        weakness
        
        androcentric
        
        Freud admitted that women were a mystery to him, and his notion of penis envy has been heavily criticised as reflecting the patriarchal Victorian era within which he lived and worked. Feminist psychologist Karen Horney argues that a more powerful emotion than penis envy is the male experience of ‘womb envy’ – a reaction to a women’s ability to nurture and sustain life.
        
        lacks scientific evidence / based on inference
        
        Many of the concepts he refers to in his account of gender development are untestable. For example, as castration anxiety is repressed, it is almost impossible to test whether boys experience this anxiety and that resolving the Oedipus complex leads to gender identity as a result of identification and internalisation.
  - - - direct reinforcement
        
        Children are more likely to be reinforced for demonstrating gender related behaviour
        
        Boys may be more encouraged to be active, assertive and engaging in rough-tumble play, in contrast girls are likely to be rewarded for being passive and gentle
      - differential reinforcement
        
        When people are praised or encouraged for certain behaviours in preference to others, making that behaviour more likely to be repeated in the future. Through differential reinforcement, a child learns their gender identity
        
        Boys may be reinforced for being active, assertive and engaging in rough and tumble play, whilst girls may be reinforced for being passive, gentle and staying close to their parent.
      - Vicarious reinforcement
        
        If the consequences of another persons behaviour are favourable, that behaviour is more likely to imitated by a child
        
        A little girl sees her mother receive a compliment for wearing makeup and so is more likely to imitate this behaviour
    - - four steps required for imitation
        
        attention
        
        retention
        
        motor reproduction
        
        motivation
    - - strength
        
        supporting research
        
        Smith and Lloyd (1978) studied 4-6-month-old babies who (irrespective of actual sex) were dressed half the time in boys’ clothes and half the time in girls’ clothes - parents reinforce gender roles in children, through direct and indirect learning
      - weakness
        
        reductionist
        
        The social learning theory does not provide an adequate explanation of how learning processes change with age. Suggests that modelling of gender-appropriate behaviour can occur at any age, from birth onwards, but does not take into account the ways in which children could become more active in their gender development as they mature.
        
        cultural changes
        
        Cultural norms and social expectations of gender behaviour have changed over time, particularly in Western cultures- ideas of masculine and feminine behaviour now not so rigid. Unlikely that these changes have occurred through biological changes, meaning that gender-appropriate behaviour is instead observed, imitated and reinforced, depending on what is culturally and socially acceptable.
  - - - Media= communication channels, such as TV and film, through which news, entertainment, education and data are available
        
        Children who watch a lot of television, play video games or spend a lot of time on social media may develop more stereotypical ideas of gender roles
        
        Both females and males are usually portrayed in a gender-stereotypical way, with girls being more passive than boys who are shown as more aggressive and dominant than girls
      - Culture= the ideas, customs and social behaviour of a particular group
      - If gender is learnt through socialisation, identification and internalisation then the surrounding culture
        will influence gender development
      - gender roles associated with these sex categories can vary cross culturally
      - summarise Mead's contributions to understanding gender roles across different cultures.
        
        =
        
        Carried out a cross cultural gender study on Samoan people
        
        The Arapesh were gentle and responsive much like females
        
        The Mundugumor were aggressive and hostile, common in male stereotypes
        
        The Tchambuli women were dominant and they organised village life, men were passive and considered to be decorative ( reverse stereotype)
      - evaluations
        
        strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        McGhee and Freuh (1980) conducted a longitudinal study over 15 months and found that children aged 6-12 who watched more than 25 hours a week of TV held more sex-stereotype perceptions than those who watched 10 hours or less. This was especially true for male stereotypes.
        
        weakness
        
        low generalisability & internal validity
        
        Mead’s research into cultural differences has been criticised for not separating her own opinions from her description of Samoan life (observer bias) and for making sweeping generalisations about gender roles based on a relatively short period of study. Additionally, the indigenous people may given into social desirability and altered their behaviour and responses to create a false picture of their behaviour
- - - - diffrent sex chromosomes, hormones, gene expressions
    - - each individual can identify as feminine or masculine which influences the way we behave
- - - - Bem developed the Bem sex role inventory
      - 20 items
        
        3 groups of 20 male/female/neutral characteristics
      - rating from 1-7
      - scores are calculated and ppt is labeled as masculine/feminine
    - - strength
        
        supporting evidence, pilot study With 1000 ppts and the results broadly matched ppt descriptions of their gender identity
      - limitation
        
        methodological issues with Bem as its self report - very subjective - demand characteristics / social desirability if they want to be perceived as neutral
        
        reductionist - the BSRI does not consider smaller, but still important, aspects of gender and androgyny, such
        as a person’s interests.
- - - - focus on genetics, hormones and brain
        dierences
      - Genetic explanation
        
        Inherited gene variants, such as a longer than usual androgen receptor gene have been detected in gene-profiling studies, resulting in biological males being unresponsive to testosterone and therefore having an absence of male features
      - Hormonal explanation
        
        A disorder in the mother’s hormonal system, maternal stress, medication or illness during pregnancy may interfere with hormonal levels and may expose a female foetus to an excess of testosterone or a male foetus to a dearth of testosterone which results in babies with some of the physical features of the opposite sex
      - brain differences
        
        The sexually-dimorphic nucleus region in the hypothalamus is 2.5 times larger in males than in females and post-mortems conducted on the brains of male to female transgender individuals have found this region to be smaller and more typical of a female brain
      - evaluation
        
        strength
        
        supporting evidence
        
        Heylans et al- compared 23 MZ twin pairs with 21 DZ twin pairs where one of each pair was diagnosed with GID. They found that 9 (39%) of the MZ twins were concordant for GID, compared to none of the DZ twins
        
        limitation
        
        socially sensitive
        
        If a biological cause is identified, this may help other people to be more accepting of the needs of individuals with GID as it isn’t their ‘fault’, it is simply biology- it also paves the way for biological treatments- such as medication and hormones. On the other hand, it might harm individuals born with the disorder because it might be (wrongly) assumed that GID is inevitable, or could lead to individuals being 'labelled'.
    - - Social explanations of gender dysphoria explain it as a result of learned behaviour, with children gaining positive reinforcement from parents and/or peers for exhibiting behaviour usually associated with the opposite gender
      - gender dysphoria is explained as the result of socialisation
      - evaluation
        
        strength
        
        One strength of social explanations as a explanation for gender dysphoria is that it takes into account cultural differences, for example, the theory argues that society can invent ideas and roles about gender which can be vastly different between cultures, this may explain why gender dysphoria is mor belikely to develop in certain society's where there are more rigid ideas about male and female behaviour, and those who do not conform may wish to transition, this is a strength because social constructionism may provide a explanation for how the environment may lead to gender dysphoria and also shows why this can change between different cultures and time periods
        
        weakness
        
        gender bias
        
        Psychoanalytic theory does not provide an adequate account of GID in females as the theory only applies to males- suggests it is caused by extreme separation anxiety before gender identity is established. Highly androcentric explanation which does not provide an explanation for gender dysphoria in females