Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

Sociacultural approach, Structure, Social cognitive theory, How to write,…

- - - - The formation of stereotypes.
- - - - Hofstede's cultural dimensions theory is a framework for cross-cultural psychology, developed by Geert Hofstede. It shows the effects of a society's culture on the values of its members, and how these values relate to behavior, using a structure derived from factor analysis.
- - - - demonstrate that learning can occur through observation of role models
    - - 72 children ages 3-6 (36 girls, 36 boys)
    - - The children's aggression was evaluated beforehand by the parents and teachers
        
        Stage 1
        
        Children were devided into 3 groups
        
        Control group
        
        No model
        
        Agressive model
        
        The model behaved agressively towards the doll
        
        Non agressive model
        
        The model just played with the toys in the room
      - In the room
        
        Toys
        
        The bobo doll
      - Stage 2
        
        Insitigation of agression in the children
        
        They were playing with toys and then they were taken away
      - Stage 3
        
        The researchers observed what the children did
        
        Did they just play with the toys or exhibit an agressive behavior (both physical and verbal) towards the bobo doll
    - - exposure to the aggressive model increased the frequency of aggressive behavior among the children
      - Boys
        
        more physcial violnce
        
        were more agressive overall
      - Girls
        
        more verbal violnce
    - - Obseervational learning was supported
        
        That we dont have to do it ourselves, but that we can learn by observing others
        
        learning can direct and indirect
        
        new behavrios can be learned by simply obersving others
      - Gender related findings
        
        The children exhibited more aggressive behavior if the role model had the same sex as them
  - - - To explore the links between aggression and two cognitive factors that might influence children's decision about whether to behave aggressively
    - - ( Elementary school)160 children (mean age 11.3 years)
    - - Correlational study (questionnaires)
        
        The chilren were divided into two groups
        
        Agressive
        
        Not agressive
        
        Two questionnaires
        
        Measure children's perceptions of self-efficacy
        
        Perceptions of thuer ability to perform aggression
        
        Measured children's belifs about renforcing and punishing consequances of agression
        
        thier belifs about positive and negative consecuances of agressive behaviour
    - - Agressive children
        
        Found it easier to engage in agressive behaviour anf more difficult to inhati agressive impulses
        
        Also more confidentthat agressive behaviour would produce rewards rather than punsihments
    - - Gender differences
        
        Very few differences bvetween the sexes on the percived self-efficacy questionnaire
        
        BUT
        
        Large differences on the outcome experctations questionanire
        
        Girls
        
        Were more likely to expect that aggression wpild cause suffering in the victim and that the agression would be punished more severely by peers
      - Importance of self-efficancy and percieved reinforcements (rewards and puhisnments)
- - - - From social learning theory
      - Learning can happen both directly and indirectly
- - - - To investigate effects of social categorisation on intergroup behavrior in a minimal group paradigm
        
        Minimal group paradimg
        
        to investigate the effects of social categorization
        
        Condtions
        
        no face to face interaction
        
        ananomytiy regardig group memebership
    - - 64 male students, Bristol England, age 14-15
        
        came from the same shcool and knew each other well
    - - Participants divided
        
        8 groups (8 people)
        
        Stage 1
        
        estimate the number of dots shown
        
        Group (4 people)
        
        "Overestimators"
        
        Group ( 4 people)
        
        "Undersetimators"
        
        Stage 2
        
        another room, worked on their own
        
        Had to distrubute rewards and penalties
        
        in real money to others
        
        Maximum profit to in-group is 14
        
        Maximum fairness is 7.5
        
        Always allocated money to others, never themselves
        
        Were told that at the end, they would be given whatever amount of money others had allocated them
    - - Diffrent group mean was 9,2
        
        Comapred to 7.5 maximum fairness
      - Same group were closely clustered around the point of fairness (7.5)
    - - They demonstrated in-group favoritism and out-group discrmination when cateogorised into groups based on trivial criteria
  - - - To clarify the strategy used by participants when making between-group choices
    - - 48 boys, aged 14-15, Bristol England (same school and age but different people)
    - - based on the first experiment
        
        largely the same procedure
        
        BUT
        
        Criterion for categorization and matrices used in the booklet were different
      - They were shown slides with pairs of abstract paintings
        
        asked to choose the one they liked better (eather Klee or Kandsinsky)
        
        were told that they would be split into grpups based on wherter they preferred Klee or Kandisky
        
        In reality they were randomly allocated
      - 3 types of strategy
        
        Maximum joint payoff (MJP)
        
        Highest total number of points
        
        Maximum in-group payoff (MIP)
        
        Maximum difference in favor of the in-group (MD)
        
        maximises the difference between the payofs for the members of the 2 grous
        
        Would contradict each other
    - - Demonstrated clear preference for MD
        
        they preferre their group to get less money if this meant that their group would compare favorably to the other group
    - - They would sacrifice group and personal gain for the intergroup difference
      - Supports the idea of positive distinctivenss (wantig to be better than the other group )
- - - - To investigate illusory correlations based on the co-occurance of infrequant events
    - - 104 undergraduates
    - - Although there was no correlation between group membership and the types of behaviours exhibited by the groups, in that the proportion of negative and positive was the same for both groups, the participants did seem to have an illusory correlation.
        
        More of the undesirable behaviours were attributed to the minority Group B, than the majority of Group A.
      - they overestimated the frequanecy with whcih members of the minority group performed negative behavior
      - perceived association between undersiabale behaviour and group membership
      - illosory correlation wacaused by event distinctivness (encountering a member of minorty is a distinct event) -> so is enouctering an instance of undesirable behaviour
    - - Co-occurance of 2 distinct events is overstimated
    - - Researchers asked participants to read descriptions about two made-up groups (Group A) and (Group B).
  - - - To determine whether or not teachers' expectations of students' performance affected the students' learning throughout the course of the year
    - - 320 students from the same public school, grades 1-6
        (255 in control group, 65 in experimental group)
      - Target population - elementary school teachers
      - Representative sample - the teachers in experiment
    - - teachers were told that certain students were expected to be "growth spurters"
        
        Based on their IQ test
        
        In reality the IQ test was fictitious and the participants were chosen at random
    - - The students in the 20% showed a significant increase in test scores, rather than the students who were not singled out for attention by the teacher
        "Self-fulfilling prophecy"
      - Control group
        
        +on average 8,4 IQ points
      - Experimental group
        
        12.2 IQ points
    - - Supported because the randomly selected students, who received more of the teacher's attention, had a significant increase in their test scores
      - In grade 1 the average was 12 IQ
        
        Vs
        
        27,4 IQ points in the control and experimental groups respectively
        
        More visible in reasoning IQ as compared to verbal IQ
      - Change in teachers expectations produce changes in students achievenemnt
      - Stereotypes we have about other people may affect their behaviour though the process of self-fulfilling prophecy
- - - - to carry out a cross-cultural comparison of cognitive styles between Chinese and American students
    - - 221 Chinese students, grades 4-5, from rural communities
        316 American students, grades 4-5, from rural distruct of Indiana
        
        US
        
        Comperable to the chienese sample in terms of socio-economic status
    - - 28 item cognitive style test
        
        consisted of 3 pictures and they were asked to group the two as a pair and leave one out
    - - Chinese students process info holistically (big pic) than analytically Group objects based on relationships.
        US students focused on components and categorisation of groups
    - - Chinese students scored higher in
      - US students scored higher in
  - - - To investigate the effect of language manipulation (Cantonese vs English) in bicultural individuals on the decision making process
    - - Experiment, independent measures. IV- language. DV- decision making strategies
      - IV: lanaguge, DV:desicion-making strategies
        
        Study 1
        
        61 participants
        
        Choice deferral
        
        closer to Chinese values than western values
        
        Choosing between 2 restaurants
        
        2 favorable features
        
        2 unique unfavorable features
        
        choose option A, B or neither
        
        Study 2
        
        Compromise choices
        
        2 extreme choices
        
        1 compromise alternative
        
        Split into 2 groups
        
        group 1
        
        in english
        
        in chinese
    - - Chinese undergraduates at a major Hong Kong uni , everything in english
        
        English and cantonese are both official languages
        
        They are fluent in both languages and have exposure to both cultures
    - - Choice deferral was more likely when the language of communication was Chinese (44% of participants in this condition chose neither of the two options compared to 29% in the English condition)
        
        Participants who were in the Chinese language condition were more likely to select compromise options: in the camera scenario 77% of participants chose the compromise option when the experiment was conducted in Chinese and only 53% chose the compromise option when it was conducted in English
    - - Culture affects decision making processes through language; even the same bilingual individuals may prefer to make different decisions based on which language they are speaking
- - - - To identiy dimensions underlying cultiral differences in values, attitudes and behaviour
    - - 117,000 IBM employees (Holsted founded the personnel research department of IBM Europe
    - - a worldwide survey of values was conducted between 1967 and 1973
        
        the results were statistically analysed to identity hidden dimensions underlying observed patterns of responses -> factor analysis
        
        follow up studies were made between 1990 and 2002
        
        sample
        
        commercial airline pilots, students, civil service managers
    - - Originally Hofstede identified four dimensions:
        
        individualism versus collectivism
        
        uncertainty avoidance
        
        power distance
        
        masculinity versus femininity.
        
        Later research refined the theory and added two more dimensions: long-term versus short-term orientation and indulgence versus self-restraint.
  - - - To investigate whether cultural differences in individualism versus collectivism affect conformity.
    - - Temne of Sierra Leone (collectivism)
        
        Inuit of Baffin Island, Canada (individualism)
        
        Urban and rural Scots (control group)
    - - Researchers measured conformity using the Asch paradigm: participants are shown a series of lines of varying length, with one target line on top of a page and several other lines below. Participants are then asked to identify which of the other lines is of equal length to the target line. They are also tricked into believing that most of the other participants (Temne or Inuits, respectively) pick a particular line as the correct answer; however, this line is actually not equal to the target line. The measure of conformity in this procedure is whether or not the participant will accept the suggestion of the "majority" and pick an incorrect response because most other group members have chosen it.
    - - The Temne had a significant tendency to accept the suggestion of the group and select the incorrect response.
        
        Participants from the Inuit group were mostly unaffected by this suggestion of the "majority". Conclusion The researchers concluded that the individualist Inuit participants conform less often than the collectivist Temne because conformity to group norms is ingrained as a cultural value in the Temne society, which depend on tight social relations.
- - - - To test the idea that musical enculturation occurs through active learning.
    - - 38 western infants who were 6 months old were randomly assigned to one of the two conditions:
        
        Six months of active participation music class
        
        Six months of a class in which they experienced
        
        music passively while playing with toys
    - - First the 38 children were separated into the two groups
        
        The first dependent variable was sensitivity to western tonality.
        
        measured by examining infants' preferences to
        
        two versions of a sonatina by Thomas Atwood;
        
        the tonal version (the original)and the atonal
        
        version (additional accidentals added).
        
        Infant preferences were measured in a head-turn preference procedure in which a light was flashed, illuminating an interesting toy, and once the infant looked at the toy, the music started playing. The music stopped once the infant looked away.
        
        It was assumed that the longer a child looks at the toy while the music is playing, the more the child likes the music.
        
        Dependent Variable 2 was the social development of infants. Making music with other people is a cultural activity involving interpersonal interaction, so it was predicted that infants in the active classes would show more social development than infants in the passive classes.
        
        Social development of infants was measured by a questionnaire given to their parents.
    - - Children in the active class group demonstrated a preference for the tonal version of the sonatina, while children in the passive group did not prefer one version to the other.
        
        The questionnaire showed that infants in the active condition by the age of 12 months showed significantly less distress to limitations, less distress when confronted with novel stimuli, more smiling and laughter, and easier soothability.
  - - - How enculturation influences cognition
      - to find the influence of enculturation on musical memory
    - - 150 trained and untrained participants from the USA and Turkey
    - - they listened to several novel musical excerpts from both familiar and unfamiliar cultures and then completed
        recognition memory task
    - - participants were significantly better at remembering novel music from their native culture; musical expertise didn't correlate with this result
      - Cognition also counts as "behaviour"
        
        may be used to demonstrate the effects of enculturation on behaviour
- - - - to study the association between acculturation and obesity
    - - 1,375 South Asian male migrant workers in the UAE
      - over half of them had lived in the UAE for 6+ years
      - most common occupations were drivers, laborers, agricultural workers, and construction workers.
      - there was also a comparison group of men of the same age in their culture of origin
    - - BMI (body mass index) tests for all participants.
    - - Migrant workers in the UAE had significantly higher BMI than the comparison group.
      - The longer the years of residency in the UAE, the higher their BMI became.
      - Prevalence of obesity was higher in migrants than in the comparison group.
      - Prevalence of obesity in the migrant sample was also higher than in Emirati men.
    - - acculturation may contribute to unheatlhy eating behaviours, resulting in obesity and overweight
        
        may be explained by the fact that migrants are moving into a culture that promotes more unhealthy eating behaviors, compared to their culture of origin
  - - - to compare obesity rates among second and third generation Asian migrants in the USA and identify potential moderating factors of developing obesity
    - - Asian migrants in the USA
    - - second and third generation migrants had a higher likelihood of obesity than first generation migrants or people from their country of origin. However, there were moderating factors that protected against developing obesity, which were:
        
        living in a neighborhood with a high migrant density
        
        living in a household the retained the original language