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Major Psychological Perspectives, Cultural Norms, Expectations, and…

- - - - Originally designed to identify children needing extra support.
      - Misused by Henry Goddard → Ranked people based on intelligence → Advocated for eugenics (sterilization of "feeble-minded" individuals).
    - - Used to justify stereotypes
      - William H. Tucker: Intelligence tests were manipulated to argue racial superiority.
- - - - Correlational Studies
        
        Correlation ≠ Causation (only controlled experiments show causation)
        
        Third Variable Problem: Unaccounted variables affecting study outcomes
        
        Explores relationships between two variables
      - Meta-Analysis
        
        Studies existing studies instead of new participants
        
        Statistical technique combining multiple studies on the same topic
      - Case Studies
        
        Provides detailed information and insight
        
        Examines individuals, groups, events, or situations
        
        Risk: Hawthorne Effect (altered behavior due to awareness of being observed)
      - Naturalistic Observation
        
        Goal: Gather authentic data
        
        Risk: Observer may lack full context (e.g., COVID-19 school changes in 2021)
        
        Observing individuals in real-world settings
- - - - Experimental Group: Receives the independent variable
        
        Random Assignment: Participants randomly placed in experimental or control group
        
        Random Selection: Participants randomly chosen for the study
        
        Different from random assignment
      - Control Group: Receives placebo or no IV Sometimes called the placebo group
      - Placebo:
        
        Mimics IV but lacks key component
        
        Prevents awareness of not receiving IV
  - - - Example: Study habits, stress, health in sleep study
      - More control = fewer confounding variables, but risk of artificial environments
      - Uncontrolled factors impacting the DV
- - - - Convenience sampling
    - - Stratified Sampling
      - Representative Sample
      - Random Sampling