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EXAM 2 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - derived novel trait
    - - apomorphy shared by 2 or more taxa
      - hypothesized to have evolved in their most recent common ancestor
      - synonymous w/ homology
    - - character newer than
    - - character older than
    - - trait has gained or lost independently in separate lineages during evolution
      - convergent evolution
        
        species independently sharing a trait that's different from trait inferred from common ancestor
    - - independent evolution of a similar trait in 2 or more taxa
  - - - found in charophytes
  - - - metaphase
        
        anaphase
        
        telophase
        
        cytokinesis
  - - - filamentous
      - apical bud
  - - - only divide at tip
      - cytokinesis in a single plane
    - - cytokinesis in oblique planes
  - - - polysporangiate
        
        large complex plants
        
        specialized organ systems
    - - unique mutant
    - - cooksonia
  - - - side axial
      - on leaf
  - - - isotomous
    - - anisotomous
  - - - produce new organs
      - produce new tissue
      - from shoot apex
  - - - bryophyte gametophyte
      - fern (monilophyte) gametophyte
      - vascular plant sporophyte
    - - lycophytes (multicellular)
      - monilophytes (single cell)
      - spermatophytes (multicellular)
  - - - ground meristem
      - procambium
      - protoderm
- - - - organisms towards end of graph require oxygen @ high concentrations
      - early thermophiles → cooler environments
        
        photosynthesis limited by temperature
    - - important to understanding origin of photosynthesis
      - layers of photosynthetic bacteria/cyanobacteria
      - secrete mucilage→stick together in thin mats on rock surface
      - creates bands of sediment & dead bacteria
        
        growing similar to reef
    - - likely oldest known fossilized organism
      - close to LUCA (~3.5-3.8 bya)
      - fossils similar to present day species cell structure
      - chemical clues
        
        2-methylhopane almost exclusive in cyanobacteria cell walls
    - - took time to build up enough photosynthesis
      - iron=plentiful on earth
      - very little free oxygen before 3 bya
      - iron depleted
        
        oxygen began to build in atmosphere
    - - iron formations disappeared
      - iron-rich oceans gone
      - iron loving microbes dropped out of fossil record
      - oxygen enriched oceans precipated
  - - - 2 stages
        
        thylakoid reactions
        
        light reactions
        
        stromal reactions
        
        dark reactions
        
        Calvin-Benson-Bassham Cycle
      - likely evolved in small bits
        
        thylakoid reactions involve
        
        dozens of pigments
        
        specialized electron-handling complexes
        
        all lined up precisely in membranes
    - - likely started as sunscreen
        
        early atmosphere w/out oxygen, so w/out protective ozone layer
      - cyanobacteria w/ scytonemin in sheath
        
        pigment that protects them from UV radiation
      - chlorophyll similar to hemoglobin & likely common ancestor
    - - molecules either absorb or reflect wavelengths of light energy
      - plants appear green
        
        green light reflected
        
        red & blue absorbed
    - - causes electrons to become excited
      - electron bumps to the next orbital
      - fate of electron
        
        passed to electron acceptor
        
        fall back down to original orbital
        
        releasing energy
        
        heat
        
        fluorescence
    - - amount of energy absorbed
        
        depends on pigment
      - electromagnetic spectrum holds much energy that can't be used
      - visible spectrum used
    - - chlorophyll A
        
        most abundant pigment
        
        peak absorbance
        
        430 nm
        
        650 nm
      - chlorophyll B
        
        2nd most abundant pigment
        
        peak absorbance
        
        450 nm
        
        650 nm
    - - indicates chlorophyll A & B not only pigments
      - must have accessory pigments
        
        carotenoids
        
        beta carotene
        
        help broaden absorption spectrum
        
        act as sunscreen
        
        visible during fall
    - - energy absorption & excitation occurs in organized complexes of pigments & proteins
        
        photosystems
      - absorbed energy is moved around via resonance energy
      - funneled to reaction center
        
        special chlorophyll A
  - - - antennal complex
      - accessory pigments
      - chlorophyll pigments
      - reaction center
    - - PSII
        
        p680
        
        absorb shorter wavelengths
        
        Chl b → Chl A
        
        hydrolysis
      - PSI
        
        P700
        
        absorb longer wavelengths
        
        Chl A → Chl B
    - - energy of excited electrons released in a stepwise controlled manner
      - may have evolved initially as a way to dissipate excess energy
      - some energy used to make stable, energy-rich molecules
        
        can be used by living cells
    - - electron passed from PSII to PSI
        
        excited PSII electron grabbed by pheophytin
        
        passed to plastoquinone
        
        passed to cytochrome complex
        
        passed to plastocyanin
        
        passed to PSI
      - electron from PSI to NADP+
  - - - flow of electrons does not directly create ATP
      - electron flow coupled w/ flow of protons
      - electron energy drops when flow through cytochrome complex
        
        drag protons across membrane
      - electrons return to chlorophyll
      - protons trapped in special internal chamber
        
        thylakoids
      - includes
        
        PSI
        
        Plastoquinone
        
        cytochrome b6f
        
        Plastocyanin
    - - e- from PSII to NADPH
      - NADP+
        
        great oxidizer
        
        final electron acceptor
      - helps to build proton motive force
    - - more powerful energy courier than ATP
      - sulfur bacteria beginnings
        
        1 photosystem
        
        pull electrons off hydrogen sulfide
        
        chlorophyll = bacteriochlorophyll
        
        H2S
        
        structure similar to H2O
        
        sulfur lower redox potential than oxygen
    - - uses light energy to split water
      - oxygen evolving complex of PSII
      - oxygen and protons released
      - oxygen diffuses out of stomata
      - protons left behind
    - - plastoquinone & cytochrome b6f
      - both work in concert to bring protons from stroma to lumen
      - builds up the lake of protons
      - involved in both cyclic and noncyclic photophosphorylation
    - - use the proton motive force
      - run the molecular machine
      - force Pi into ADP to form ATP
  - - - Ribulose 1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase oxygenase
      - fixes CO2 into organic carbon
      - Calvin-Benson-Bassham pathway
      - found in most autotrops
      - up to 50% total soluble protein in plant leaf or microbe
    - - fixation
        
        CO2 bound to RuBP (C5)
        
        immediately breaks into 2 C3
      - reduction
        
        energy from ATP stored into C3 model
        
        energetic electrons reduce C3 molecule
        
        ends in a pool of G3P (C3)
      - regeneration
        
        carbon shuffling
        
        get the RuBP back (C5)
        
        takes more ATP
    - - RuBisCO binds to 2 molecules
        
        CO2
        
        O2
      - @ low CO2, binds O2
      - disadvantages
        
        not as efficient
        
        produces toxic by-product
      - sometimes advantageous
        
        high light tolerance
        
        reduce photo-inhibition
        
        provides metabolites for other processes
        
        stress protection proteins
        
        alpine environments
        
        drought prone environments
        
        high salinity environments
    - - production of glucose
      - building from smaller molecules
      - occurs in
        
        chloroplasts
        
        amyloplasts
        
        cytosol
- - - - haplontic
        
        Greek
        
        haploos + einai = single being
    - - current land plants
      - haplodiplontic
        
        Greek
        
        haploos + diploos + einai = single double being
    - - interpolation theory
    - - heteromorphic generations
      - sporophyte
        
        short-lived
        
        simple
      - gametophyte
        
        relatively complex
        
        persistent
  - - - marchantia liverwort ex.
      - dominant leafy gametophyte
      - temporary diploid sporophyte
    - - dominant life stage
      - antheridiophore
        
        male
        
        antheridia
        
        contain sperm
        
        antheridial head
      - archegoniophore
        
        female
        
        archegonia
        
        contain eggs
        
        archegonial head
    - - small, temporary structure
      - parasitic on gametophyte
      - meiosis occurs w/in sporangium
        
        sporocytes
        
        2n
        
        spores
        
        1n
    - - mnium moss ex.
      - dominant leafy gametophyte
      - temporary diploid sporophyte
  - - - Selaginella ex.
      - heterosporous
      - retained w/in spore walls
      - sperm must still swim to egg
    - - both male & female develop in spore wall
      - small
      - microgametophytes
        
        male
        
        antheridium
        
        sperm
      - megagametophyte
        
        female
        
        archegonium
        
        egg
    - - heterosporous
      - reduction in megasporocytes to 1/megasporangium
      - micro
        
        male
      - mega
        
        female
      - sori
        
        sporangia
        
        indusia
      - large, persistent diploid
    - - polypod fern ex.
      - independent gametophyte
      - independent sporophyte
  - - - pine example
      - microgametophyte no longer restricted to water
      - megagametophyte protected by integuments
    - - large dominant diploid
      - gametophyte reduced to microscopic structures
    - - microgametophyte
        
        pollen
      - megagametophyte
        
        becomes nutritive tissue
        
        protected by integuments
        
        w/in an ovule
    - - lily ex.
      - sporophyte dominant
      - gametophytes microscopic
    - - flowering plants very diverse
      - annual to perennial
      - indeterminate growth
    - - multicellular haploid stage
      - pollen grain
        
        immature
        
        mature germinating
    - - multicellular haploid individual
      - egg 1 of the cells
- - - - Present atmospheric level oxygen
        
        ~20.9%
        
        ~535x more O2 than CO2
      - during appearance of land plants
        
        8-15> higher in CO2
        
        ~ 4% O2
        
        kept tissues thin as internal environment quickly anoxic
        
        very weak ozone
    - - ~470 mya
      - major evolutionary changes in morphology & reproduction
      - multicellular sporophyte
      - retain the qygote & embryo w/in the female gametophyte
      - apical cells w/ 3 cutting faces allow for 3-dimensional parenchymatous tissue
    - - charophycean green algae
      - streptophyta
        
        group includes
        
        embryophyta
        
        charophytes
      - sometimes grow as flat disc very similar to present day liverworts
    - - earliest evidence from spores & tissue fragments
      - Mid-Ordovician 470 Ma
      - Sporopollenin wall
      - trilete mark
      - cryptospores
        
        lively liverwort
    - - ~390 Ma
      - middle devonian
      - dichotomously branched
    - - Cooksonia sporophytes
      - Mid-Late Silurian
      - ~425 Ma
      - Gametophytes complex
        
        stomata
        
        conducting elements
        
        similar to extant liverworts
    - - specialized conducting cells
      - evidence from spores ~443 Ms
      - Tracheid fossils ~415 Ma
      - Diversity exploded in Devonian (415-360Ma)
        
        dominant sporophyte no longer restricted to damper areas
  - - - alternation of generations
      - gametophyte dominant in early land plants
      - sporophyte evolves dominance
    - - water conducting cells
      - food conducting cells
    - - all land plant sporophytes but liverworts
      - Ordovician, many seen Silurian
      - often aerial surfaces covered w/ cuticle
    - - downward growing rhizomes
      - gravitropism
      - phototropism
      - evolved a root cap
      - evolved a new way to branch
        
        early roots branched @ tip
      - some lineages may have evolved from leaves
    - - gametophyte
        
        completely dependent on sporophyte
        
        egg protected by special layers of tissue
      - seed ferns (all extinct)
      - Gymnosperm
        
        naked seed
      - angiosperm
        
        hidden seed
    - - stem specialization
      - attraction
      - dispersal
      - coevolution
- - - - one of the earliest features of land plants
      - all but liverworts w/ examples
    - - small pore bounded by specialized epidermal cells
        
        guard cells
      - permit rapid gas exchange in higher plants
        
        oxygen out
        
        CO2 in
      - control of water loss permit giants among plants
    - - early Devonian sporangia ~400 mya stomata scattered across sporangia
      - extinct lineages
        
        rhyniophytes
        
        Cooksonia
      - similarities link to similar functions in extant angiosperms
        
        evidence of air chambers
        
        bean-like shape
        
        inner wall thickening
    - - likely origin of stomata
      - aid in desiccation of sporophyte
      - stomata near sporophyte sporangia
      - aid in spore dispersal
      - likely not regulated
      - may have permitted some CO2 to enter
        
        no intercellular space
    - - support early role different from today
      - location on non-photosynthetic sporophyte tissue in early lineages
      - extant early lineages have stomata that only open
    - - pseudostomata continuous w/ epidermis or hypodermis
        
        no space
      - space filled w/ fluid w/ space made by cells pulling apart
      - stomatal canal
        
        small air space
        
        aid in diffusion of minerals and nutrients
        
        gametophyte→sporophyte
        
        cell death
    - - monocot
        
        grasses
        
        dumbbell shape
        
        same direction as epidermal cells
      - eudicot
        
        kidney-shaped
        
        random orientation
  - - - active metabolic processes
        
        increase turgor pressure
        
        moves ions
        
        water follows by osmosis
        
        hypotonic → hypertonic
      - cytoskeleton microfibrils radially oriented
    - - provides ATP for potassium pump
      - protons are pumped out
      - potassium are moved in
      - ancestral condition filled w/ chloroplasts
        
        independent of blue light
      - closure
        
        @ night
        
        under water stress
    - - amount of water loss to carbon gain
      - close pore during water stress
        
        reduce transpiration
        
        maintain hydration
      - derived character
      - reduce probability of cavitation
      - ABA responsive in seed plants
        
        angiosperms additionally respond to VPD