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Autocracy, reform and revolution - Coggle Diagram

- - - - However, since the 1820s, the Sultan (Muslim sovereign) had struggled to control the Christians in his European dominions
        
        Nicholas I seized the opportunity to increase Russian influence by posing as Protector of the Slavs and Christians
  - - - Russians strong and triumphantly sank a squadron from the Turkish black sea fleet at Sinope Bay
        
        Provoked Turks into declaring war October 1853
        
        June 1853, Nicholas sent an army to Moldovia and Wallachia
        
        Conflict
        
        Failings
        
        outdated technology
        
        poor transport
        
        inadequate leadership
  - - - Trade had been disrupted, peasant uprisings escalated and Intelligentsia called for closer relations with the west.
        
        Treaty of Paris (1856) prevented Russian warships from the Black Sea
        
        Crimean War was a wakeup call for Russia after decades of stagnation. In 1855, Alexander II brought a generation of liberal minded reform in an attempt to match the West in economic development
- - - - Relaxation of censorship caused a spread of radical literature, while the relaxation of controls caused spread of higher education. This increased the number of independently minded students
        
        Zemstva and Duma also provided opportunity for educated individuals to challenge tsarist policies.
        
        Reform to the Judicial system produced proffesionally trained lawyers, skilled in persuasion.
        
        Suppression of Alexander IIIs reign reinforced demands for change.
  - - - Security was instantaneously stepped up and Alaxander himself retired to his fortified castle. Ending the Populist movement.
        
        Result of assassination
    - - Wanted revolutionaries to focus on Proletariat rather than peasantry - the dynamism for social revolution would emerge from.
        
        Wanted workers to be ready for Marxism, but to also cooperate with bourgeoisie to fight the autocracy.
  - - - Most of 'Intelligentsia usually fell into two categories:
        
        Had the wealth, time and intellect to reflect on politics. Also had travelled abroad so can compare social stagnation in their own countries.
        Most of 'Intelligentsia usually fell into two categories:
        
        Size was small due to small proportion of Russia which where liberate. However, Liberal intelligentsia grew with reforms and economic changes.
        
        Moderate Liberal opposition
      - Western attraction
        
        Zemstva provided a natural home for westernising liberal opposition voices, the hoped for the Tsar to reform the autocracy to listen to his subjects and representatives.
        
        St Petersburg zemstvo demanded a central body to support regional councils, Alexander remainded firm until the late 1870s. Restrictions from Alexander III in 1889-90 bitterly disappointed Zemstva liberals
    - - Attractions of slavophiles diminished in teh 1890s, when industrialism moved forwards, creating conditions fit for western style socialism. This split the Intelligentsia:
        
        Attracted to the Marxist theory and drawn to socialism.
        
        Maintenance of more moderate liberal stance in support of Tsardom.
        
        **GREAT FAMINE (1891-91) - polarised Russian society and became more organised in opposition to Tsar - inaction of Tsarist government.
  - - - Series of Fires in St Petersburg destroyed over 2000 shops. Young Russia was immediately blamed and a commission for investigation was released.
        
        Young Russia - group of students who published manifesto in 1862, stating revolution was the only way forward.
    - - Set up in 1868-69 in St Petersburg, A literacy society that organised the publishing and spreading of revolutionary literature.
        
        Published Marx's Das Kapital first volume, spreading radical ideals.
        
        Small circle of less than 100 members spread through several major cities.
    - - Karl Marx - theory that all issues were due to class struggle. He had predicted that a struggle between 'proletariat and 'Bourgeoisie' would create a perfect 'communist society'. Unhelpful in present however, Russia was predominately rural with a smaller working class.
        
        Mikhail Bakunin was an anarchist and socialist. Put forward idea of collective ownership - Communism. He was forced to live in exile but helped to introduce Marxism by translating Karl Marx's the Communist manifesto into Russian - 1869.
        
        Radical thinkers
    - - Set up in 1877, continued populist tradition and members sought to work with peasants' communes in less obtrusive manners as doctors, teachers or workmen,
        
        Carried out Political assassinations, Head of the Third section in 1878
        
        Gathered public sympathy and the Zemstva even communicated for joint effort in pressuring the Tsar.
        
        Land and Liberty split in 1879 into 2 different groups:
        
        Black Repartition - Organised in St Petersburg by George Plekhanov and colleagues. The goal was to partition the black soil (good soil) provinces among peasants. It worked, amongst the peasantry, peacefully in hopes of stimulation social change. Severely weakened by arrests in 1880-81, when many members turned to Marxism.
        
        The Peoples Will - who was led by Mikhailov who implemented a spy in the Third Section, to avoid harassment. It advocated violence, undermining the government by assassinating officials. In 1879, they called for Tsars assassination unless a constitution was met - Tsar was murdered in March 1881.
    - - Idea of 'Going to the people' became known as Narodnyism (populism)
        
        1874 Pyotr Lavrov encouraged a group of 2000 mainly nobility and intelligentsia, to travel to the countryside to convince peasants that the future of Russia relied upon the development of Peasant commune.
        
        Aimed to exploit the resentment from Emancipation about the lack of land to their advantage.
        
        Peasant's ignorance, superstition, prejudice and deep-rooted loyalty to the Tsar meant the group was reported to the authorities. Around 1600 were arrested
        
        2nd attempt in 1876, this was no more successful and led to more arrests, and show trials 1877-78.
- - - - Small but diverse group, mostly of noble status
        
        Personal land holdings decreased since emancipation
        
        employed in:
        
        Professional activities (e.g. University professors)
        
        business, commerve, transport or industry
        
        Zemstva and/or provincial governorships
        
        Often retained much of their previous wealth and status
        
        The landed elite (former serf-owners)
    - - Around 2% of the population by the 1890s:
        
        Some peasants worked in towns and returned to farming at peak times.
        
        Others became urban workers or worked for migrant groups building railways.
        
        Growing class 1 in 3 inhabitants in St Petersburg by 1864 were peasant born.
        
        Suffered poor working and living conditions
    - - The richer peasants - Kulaks:
        
        Did well out of emancipation
        
        Bought up land and employed labour.
        
        Might buy grain from poorer peasants in autumn and sell back for profit in spring
        
        Poorer peasants:
        
        Suffered more after emancipation
        
        Became landless labourers, often in debt
        
        experienced poor living standards
        
        poor health and low life expectancy
    - - Growing class, result from industrial expansion and education.
        
        Include bankers, doctors, teachers and administrators.
        
        Enterprises included building railways and starting factories.
        
        Lower middle class could become managers or workshop owners.
  - - - Introduced a prohibitive import tariff of 30% of the value of the raw materials. This encouraged home production**
        
        Increased amount of indirect tax and swelled grain exports, 1881-91 grain exports had increased by 18%, by 1892 Russian budget was in a surplus.
        
        Peasants who paid the tax and saw their grain requisitioned, many were left with no reserve. By Winter, a bad harvest led to widespread famine - The great famine, 1891-92
    - - Wite was totally committed to economic modernisation as means of curbing revolutionary activity.
        
        Believed that the only way forward was to continue with protective tariff, heavy taxation and forced exports to generate capital.
        
        Increased foreign investment 215 million roubles - 1890 and 280 million - 1895
        
        Much of this investment went into metal trades, oil and Banking. Witte encouraged foreign experts to oversee and advice industrial projects. With their help there was a huge Railway Expansion.
        
        Russia became the 4th largest industrial economy in 1897. This helped increase exports and trade.
        
        Around 1600 km expansion to railways in 1871-75
    - - Produced a series of reforms designed to boost the economy and provide funds to drive industrial growth.
        
        Von Rueterns reforms
        
        The treasury was reformed and new arrangements for tax collection, budget publication and auditing of government accounts.
        
        Tax-forming (buying rights for tax collection) abolished and system was reformed to include more indirect tax.
        
        State bank (1860), Municipal bank (1862) and Savings bank (1869)
        
        Trade was promoted with a reduction of import duties from 1863
        
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        Strengths of reform
        
        Tax farmers had to look elsewhere to invest, government provided subsidies and trade treaties encouraging enterprise.
        
        Foreign technical expertise and capital also supported industrial expansion and railway development, saw annual growth of 6%.
        
        Industrial expansion such as, Oil extraction in the Caspian Sea port in Baku (1871), Ironworks in Donetsk in (1872)
        
        Weaknesses in economy despite reform
        
        1/3 of expenditure went on repayment debts and Russian currency - the Rouble was subject to inconsistency in value.
        
        60% of government revenue came from indirect tax, which kept the domestic market small.
  - - - The Church possessed strict censorship controls and the church courts judged moral and social crimes.
        
        1862 - and ecclesiastical commission was established to look into the Church's organisation and practice.
        
        1868 - reforms were introduced to improve the education of priests.
        
        The church was given more power over primary education under Delyanov as minister of education.
        
        Russification promoted orthodoxy throughout the empire, it became illegal to convert from orthodoxy.
        
        There was evidence that the Orthodox church was losing control over people's lives. It was becoming less relevent in industrialising towns, and countryside superstition was becoming more powerful than priest influence.
- - - - Free peasants
        
        Greater incentives to work
        
        Grain surplus
        
        Export of grain providing for money for state
        
        Investment in industry
        
        Urban Growth
        
        Greater prosperity
    - - Crimean war - humiliations of failures were main catalyst for reform to strengthen and restores dignity to the state.
        
        Peasants uprising since the 1840s may not have threatened autocracy but disorder added weight to the argument of emancipation.
        
        Pressure
    - - Romantic poet tutor, **Zhukovsky and his travels around the Empire during his fathers reign.
        
        Political circle of Progressive nobles 'Party of St Petersburg Progress'
        
        Milyutin Brothers who were committed to abolition of serfdom.
        
        Nikolai - Favoured slavophile tradition. Responsible for drafting of terms of Emancipation Edict, and support of Zemstva.
        
        Dmitry - Military record made him an obvious choice for Minister of War, 1861-81. Shared view of serfdoms weaknesses physically and ethically.
  - - - However, there is an argument that the Emancipation was a state-directed manipulation of society that aimed at increasing political and social stability.
        
        Alexander II decision to Emancipate 51 million Serfs in 1861 has often been seen as the result of his own liberal political views, 'Tsar Liberator' (Enlightened despotism).
        
        Emancipation of the serfs
        
        15% if serfs were still in temporary obligation until 1881, when redemption was made compulsory.
        
        There were 2 years of temporary obligation before freedom was granted in order to work out allocations. Open fields were given to the Mirs.
        
        Volosts established to supervise the Mirs. In 1863 the Volosts ran their own courts, replacing the landlord's jurisdiction over serfs.
        
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        Results of Emancipation
        
        Kulaks (Upper peasant class), did well out of the land allocations. They bought extra land and produced a Grain surplus for export.
        
        Others sold their allocation, obtained a passport to leave the Mir, which raised their living standards by finding work in industrialising cities
        
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  - - - Restrictions under Publishers were reduced. Foreign publications were permitted with government approval, and Press was allowed to print editorials with comment on government policy
        
        Led to rapid growth in majority of publications on sale. Books available grew from 1020 in 1855 to 10,691 in 1894.
        
        Brought about retightening government control, in 1870s
        
        Education reforms (1863-64)
        
        Abolition of Serfdom increased the need for Literacy rate among peasants. Whilst the Zemstvo provided opportunity for a change in the funding of education, under Alexander Golovnin (Minister of education 1862-70)
        
        Universities given opportunity to govern themselves and appoint their own staff.
        
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    - - There was previously no jury system, no lawyers and no examination of witnesses.
        
        Equality before the law was established with a single system of local, provisional and national courts. The accused was presumed innocent until proven guilty
        
        Criminal cases were heard before barristers and a Jury, selected from property owners. Judges were appointed by the Tsar and given improved training and pay.
        
        Local Justices of the Peace were elected every three years by the Zemstva
        
        Courts were open to the public and could be reported on in government news Russian Courier
        
        LIMITATIONS:
        
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    - - To replace the obligations of the former Serf-owning Gentry, a system of elected council was established - Zemstva
        
        Chosen through a system of 'Electoral colleges', which separated nobles, townspeople, Church and peasants. However, Nobility able to dominate the procedure.
        
        Zemstva given power to improve public services, develop industrial projects and administer poor relief. Spread to towns through Duma in 1870.
        
        Gave hope to intelligentsia who wanted a representative national assembly.
        
        LIMITATIONS:
        
        Power of Zemstva, they had no control over state and local taxes. Provincial governors continued to appoint officials, took responsibility for low and order and overturn decisions of the Zemstvo.
      - Military reforms (1874-75)
        
        Dmitry Milyutin reorganised the armed forces to create a smaller, more professional, less expensive army.
        
        Conscription was made compulsory for all classes from the age of 21. Length of service reduced from 25 to 15 years active service and 10 years in reserves.
        
        Punishments were made less severe and system of military colonies was abandoned
        
        Better provisioning and Medical were established.
        
        Modern weaponry was introduced as well as a new command structure.
        
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- - - - Taxes provided 25% of ordinary government income which grew to 30% by 1855
        
        Peasants were hit hard by taxation and with urban workers and tradesmen provided 90% of imperial income. Nobility and Clergy were exempt from the payment of any direct monetary tax
    - - Productive class - Serfs, **Urban artisans (i.e. leather-maker), merchants and manufacturers.
        
        Non-productive class - consisted of clergy, nobility, civil and military officials, army and naval officers.
        
        Russia was a starkly divided nation between the privileged land-owning elite and the serf majority.
        
        Classes
  - - - Serfs were poor, just about managing to survive on the produce they grew for themselves and the land provided by their landlords
        
        Often suffered starvation, in years of bad harvest.
        
        Serf communes (Mirs) meant serfs worked scattered strips and were required to follow a communal farming pattern. No opportunity or incentive to work independently.
        
        Markets existed for peasants and most common purchases were Vodka, metal tools and salt. However, being self-sufficient meant that few goods were actually purchased.
    - - There were no opportunity for capital accumulation as profits were generally falling. This was due to agricultural growth in western nations.
        
        Generally uninterested in how efficiently their estates produced, aristocratic landowners saw little more need to do anything
        
        Obtained what they needed from their serfs in service and feudal dues
        
        Landowning elite
    - - Britian, Belgium, France and the states compromising Germany were well advanced industrially.
        
        Russian economy remained mostly rural with a ratio of 11:1 village to town dwellers compared to a 2:1 in Britian.
      - Reasons for agriculture based economy
        
        Russia's territories may have been vast but they were largely inhospitable: tundra, forests and stretches of barren countryside.
        
        Communications with the rest of Europe remained untapped limiting exports.
        
        Lack of progress primarily due to commitment to a serf-based economy. Land owning aristocracy, the Tsarist government and the army were all reliant on serfs. Entrepreneurship was impossible.
  - - - The Tsar and the central government were based in the imperial capital, but the regime also relied on support of the provincial nobility
        
        Despite not being obliged since 1785 many nobles continued to maintain a strong sense of obligation
    - - Tsars imperial edicts were the law of the land. Nobody could do anything without the Tsar's approval. His main advisory bodies were:
        
        Imperial council or chancellery - a body of 35 to 60 nobles specifically picked by the Tsar to advise him personally.
        
        Council of Ministers - a body of 8-14 ministers in charge of different departments of the government.
        
        Senate - supposedly oversee workings of government but was largely redundant by 1855.
      - Police state
        
        To preserve autocracy, the country had developed into a police state.
        
        The state prevented freedom of speech, freedom of travel, and travel abroad. Political meetings and strikes were forbidden
        
        The 'Third section' of the emperor's imperial council was the Tsar's secret police, they had the power to carry out raids, arrest and imprison anyone.
      - Bureaucracy
        
        The civil servants who made up the bureaucracy were paid noble officials, selected from a 'table of ranks' that laid down the requirements for office.
        
        The bureaucracy was riddled with corruption and incompetence.
        
        It was a one-way system and orders were only passed down through the ranks.
    - - World's largest army of around 1.5million conscripted serfs each forced into service for 25 years and live in a military colony.
        
        Huge army absorbed 45% of governments annual spending
        
        Higher ranks were reserved for nobles who bought and sold their commisions.
        
        The Tsar also had access to the service of elite regiments of mounted Cossacks, acting as the Tsar's police reinforcement and personal bodyguard.
      - State and Church
        
        1855, Russia was an Autocratic empire. 'The emperor of Russia in an autocratic unlimited monarch, God himself ordains that all must bow to his supreme power.
        
        Nicholas statement was also a reminder that the Tsar was the head of the orthodox church and was regarded as the embodiment of God on earth.
        
        Structures of state and church were entwined, archbishops and bishops at the head of the church were subject to tsarist control over appointments, religious education, most of the Church's finances and issues of administration.
- - - - His reign began with 1881 'Manifesto of unshakeable autocracy' and the hanging of conspirators involved in his father's death
    - - Chosen to tutor Alexander from 1865. He was very close to Alexander and gained the nickname 'The black Tsar'
        
        It is thought that he wrote Alexanders accession manifesto 'An unshakeable autocracy'
        
        He spoke out for Absolutism, Nationalism and Antisemitism
  - - - May 1881, a law reduced the redemption payments and cancelled the arrears of ex-serfs in central provinces.
        
        Positive reform
  - - - 1889 - ministry became responsible for the appointment of town judges.
        
        1887 - property and education required for jurers increased.
        
        1887 - ministry was granted powers to hold closed court sessions.
        
        1885 a decree provided for the minister of justice to exercise greater control, for example dismissal of judges.
        
        Reforms of Alexander II were partially reversed.
        
        Changes in the Judicial system
        
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    - - A further act in 1890 changed election arrangements for the zemstva, to place it under central government control. This channelled efforts away from political discussions and towards social services
        
        In June 1892, a similar arrangement was made for towns. The electorate was reduced to owners of property, subject to central government control.
- - - - In 1866 an assassination attempt which shook emperors' confidence. This led to a more repressive policy.
        
        From 1881, Alexander III had a reign which was characterised by a similar reactionary ideal, 'total faith and strength and righteousness of our autocratic power'.
  - - - Developments as well as multiple assassination attempts drove him more allof.
        
        Persuaded by reactionaries scared of the spread of Western ideas to make a series of new appointments in 1866:
        
        Tolstoy minister of education - replace Liberal Golovnin
        
        Timashev as minister of internal affairs, to replace Valuev
        
        Shuvalov as head of the Third Section (secret police).
        
        Pahlen as minister of Justice.
        
        Police, Law and Control
        
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        More state teacher-training colleges were set up to increase tsarist control.
        
        Censorship was tightened and there was a strict control over student activity.
        
        IN universities, liberal courses were replaced and critical thinking subjects were forced out.
        
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        Attempted assassination of Alexander II
        
        April 1866, a former student of noble status, Dmitry Karakozov, shot Alexander but missed.
        
        A polish immigrant the following year fired upon a carriage carrying Alexander but hit a horse and cavalryman.
        
        April 1879, Alexander Soloviev, fired at Alexander 5 times without success.
        
        December 1879, a bomb intended to blow up the Tsar was set on the wrong train.
        
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  - - - Decided following attempts on his life that unrest might only be curbed by widening democratic consolation.
        
        Melikov was appointed minister of internal affairs releasing political affairs, relaxing censorship and lifted restrictions on the activities of the Zemstva
        
        The third section was abolished (1880) and powers transferred to normal police, Okhrana** was created which was just as oppressive.
        
        In 1880, Loris-Melikov produced a report in response to zemstvo demands, Recommended the inclusion of elected representatives of the nobility, of the Zemstva, and of the two governments in debating drafts of some state decrees.
        
        Alexander II accepted and signed the decree on 13th March 1881, he was killed by a bomb later that day.
- - - - ORTHODOX CHURCH - adherence to the faith was encouraged. In the Baltic region, 37,000 Lutherans converted to orthodoxy for support measures.
        
        Military - Conscription area widened, and national areas were dispersed to avoid national groupings.
        
        Ukraine - Limitations on the Russian language 1883.
        
        Poland - Polish national banks closed in 1885, all subjects had to be taught in Russian in Universities, administration of Poland was changed to curb independence.
        
        Finland - Parliament was reorganised in order to weaken its political influence, Russian language was demanded, Russian coinage replaced local currency.
        
        Alexander III and his ministers, especially Pobedonostev engaged in a policy of 'cultural russification'
        
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  - - - Jewish Pogroms of 1881-84
        
        Pale was heavily concentrated with Jewish followers, making them hotspots for anti-jewish pogroms in April 1881, in Yelizavetgrad of Ukraine
        
        It is probable that they were encouraged by the okhrana using the link to Alexander IIs assassination.
        
        Governing authorities certainly did little to curb the violence. They were slow to act, and the 'Holy League' which was supported by Pobedonotsev, helped to coordinate early attacks.
        
        From Yelizavetgrad, the riots spread to other Ukrainian towns such as Kiev, Odessa and beyond Warsaw.
        
        Many Jews fled across the border into Western Europe, 16 Major cities were affected, with Jewish Property burnt, shops and businesses destroyed and instances of rape and murder. Main outbreaks were in 1884
      - Anti-semitic legislation 1882-94
        
        1882 - May laws and Army law (jewish doctors permitted in army)
        
        1886 - No Jew can be elected to vacancy on the board of orphan system.
        
        1887 - Jews who graduated from university outside Russia could not live outside the Pale.
        
        1887 - Number of Jews admitted to schooling was done on quotas: 10% from Pale; 5% outside the pale; 3% in capitals
        
        1889 - Permit from minister of Justice required to be elected to the bar (legal professional body)
        
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      - May Laws 1882
        
        1, Jews are forbidden to settle in cities of less than 10,000 people.
        
        All contracts of property outside cities to a Jew, have no effect.
        
        Jews are forbidden to do business on Sundays and Christian holidays
      - Alexander II and III on Anti-Semitism
        
        During Alexander II's reign, antisemitism had existed in poorer levels of society, due to the teachings of the orthodox church** and resentment of their wealth
        
        Had allowed wealthier Jews to settle elsewhere, until the Polish revolt which frightened him into withdrawing his concessions. This encouraged antisemitism.
        
        Further encouraged by the reign of Alexander III and ministers such as Pobedonostsev, using slogans such as 'Beat the Yids - Save Russia'
        
        Alexander III himself was antisemitic, largely on religious grounds. The right wing press claimed the Jewish were responsible for Alexander II's assassination.
    - - Following the progroms, many Jews left the country. Some went on their own free will and others were forcibly expelled (Kiev 1886)
        
        From 1890, foreign Jews began to be deported from Russia along with Russian Jews from outside Pale
        
        1891-92, around **10.000 Jewish artisans were expelled from Moscow where they had previously legally setlled.
        
        Grand duke Sergei, Alexanders brother made governor general in 1892 and forced around 20,000** Jews from Moscow.
        
        The actions forced a disproportionate number of them towards revolutionary groups