Encoding
Visual encoding
Semantic encoding
Acoustic encoding
Definition: information is changed from one format to another
Sound-based encoding
Based off of how things looks
Fasts and meaning
Pure information
Storage
LTM
Potential unlimited capacity and duration
STM
Limited capacity storage 5-9 items
Limited duration as shot as 30 seconds, but possibley longer
According to baddeley, shot term memory is encoded acoustically. BAdele’s did a study on similar and dissimilar sounding words and synonyms and antonyms. The study. Found that words recalled immediately after were encoded acoustically, and found that words recalled after a 20 minute delay were encoded semantically
Possibly others
Definition: keep information for recall at a later time
Baddeley study(1966)
Background: baddeley conducted an experiment in a laboratory with carefully controlled conditions
Aim: To investigate the type of encoding used in short term and long term memory
Method:4 groups,ABCD.A was acoustically similar words, group b was acoustically dissimilar . Group C was semantically similar (synonyms with the same meaning) and group D was semantically different (antonym with different meaning). Group C and D were recalled 20 minutes after learning the order Group A and B recalled words immediately after hearing the words. we don’t know how large the sample was.
Results: A did worse than B. C did worse than D. It was harder to remember the order of acoustically similar words than acoustically dissimilar words and the order of semantically similar words were harder to remember than semantically dissimilar words.
Strengths/weaknesses: strength: the study was well controed in a laboratory by controlling the speed of reading the words and hearing ability because they gave participants hearing tests. Weaknesses: the test may not have actually tested long term memory because it was only 20 minutes recall. The test could have examined visual or other encoding types to see their effects on the results. We also donb’t know if STM could be encoded visually or by smell/other senses
Group A accouticalily similar
Group B accouticalily dissimilar
Group C semantically similar
Group D semantically different
Retrieval
Recognition
Cued recall
Free recall
Retrieve information(remember) without any cue
Retelling a story without help
Essay question on a test
Recongnizing something you know
Identifying correct answer answers in multiple choice question
Retrieve information(remember)with cue or assistance
Someone tells you a hit to help you remember
Murdock study position effects primacy and recency
Primacy effects: memory that tends to be better at the beginning
Recency effects:remembering items at the end of the list(stronger than primacy effects)
Method: Murdock used a random word list of 4000 most commonly used words. And participants were read 20 word lists each of different words and lengths in each session. Immediately after hearing each list. Participants recalled the words
Murdock has a sample size of 103 participants who were all psychology students at a university
Murdock found that the probability that a word wil be remembered depends on the position of the word in a list. Sepal position effect.
Strengths: the study can be replicated because it has good documentation and clearly defined methods
The results of the study provides separate categories for different lengths of lists reducing the practice effect and fatigue effect
The sample size was pretty large
They controlled the speed of reading the words
Weaknesses
All of the sample was college. Students from a psychology course limting the ability to generalze the finding of the study
The study only tests one part of memory for word list recall which might not be comparable to how memory is used in every day life. Therefore the study has low ecological validity
Interference
Distraction that affects the thinking process
Mcgeoch and McDonald’s : Aimed to test interference by having participants memorise a list, view a new list, and then recall the original list.
Participants: 12people
method: participants viewed a list of ten words, and rehearsed then until they knew them 100% recall. Then they saw another list, and had to recall the original list.
Each participant was read the list to perform the tasks in a random order. With the first list read, a test of memory,and then one of the following six
1.list of synonyms to the first List
2.antonyms to the first list
3.words unrelated words
- Words unrelated to the original ones
5.three-digit number - Control conditions with no second list
Results:participants that had a second task more similar to the first task were more likely to forget the words
Weakness: sample size too small, because the task is not a natural way we use memory(for memorising random words lists)the task is not ecologically valid
Strengths: participants were tested to ensure they had 100% recall of the original list, controlling for extraneous variable in how fast they could memorise
Sensation
-Information taken in by the senses
- does NOT include interpretation
Perception
-the processed information
-includes interpretation
Anything processed by sense receptors
Is the organisation and interpretation of sensory information
Thinking
Feeling
Smell, taste, touch, sight, hearing
Only what enters your thought
Theories of perception
Gregory’s constructivist theory
Gibson’s direct theory of perception
-perception is interpreted sensation
-something we build based on what we know
-our brain infers, or fills in the gaps, what we think using sensory information
- visual cues are hints to where things are located they are used to interpret sensations.
-All of the information we perceive is already included in the sense
-this theory has no explanation for errors in perception
-this theory does explain how we perceive the world out of the lab
Binocular cues
Retinal Dispanity— Each eye will see a slightly different image and the brain can process to understand more about the image such as distance and depth.
-convergence- when two things get closer together.
- when eyes converge, it gives us information on distance
Monocular cues
Height in plane— things higher up appear further away
relative size— when one thing looks smaller than another similar thing, it will appear furthers away
occlusion—one thing is blocked by another, it will appear further away
linear perspective— parallel lines will appear to converge in the distance
Grilchrist and Nesbery(1952)
Aim
Method
How does being Starved affect Perception of food related pictures
26 volunteer college students who were willing to go without food for 20 hours
Shown pictures of food for 15 seconds each
Demand characteristic is controlled by deceiving participants. They were told that they were matching pictures
Result
Participants adjusted the light to match the original Color, but the brightness was higher than the original picture.
Therefore, they incorrectly remembered the food as being brighter than it was.
Hudson’s study(1960) Perception and culture
Aim: to examine whether people from different cultures will interpret a picture differently
Method: Participants from different cultures and educational backgrounds were shown pictures of a person with a spear, an elephant, and an antelope
After Seeing the pictures, Hudson asked several questions.
- What is the man doing
- Which is nearer, the man elephant or antelope?
- What do you see?
Results: many people replied that the elephant was closer schooled participants were more likely to see depth, white participants were more likely to see depth
Strengths:
1.Wide variety of participants with recorded educational backgrounds
2.not using an opportunity sample.
Weakness:
1.poorly documented with an unclear number of participants .
2.the study might not have properly accounted for how new paper was to many participants affecting the rusults
Mcginie’s study are anxiety including situation less likely to be noticed
Aim: Does it take longer to recognise and say words that may cause embarrassment
Method: 8 male + 8 female students viewed a series of words.
Some words were anxiety inducing and others were neutral
Participants read the word after seeing Galvanic skin response is recorded.
Thalamus
Deep in the brain
In formation hub or relay center
Signals from retina are received in thalamus and relayed or passedon
Nature + Nurture in brain development
Smoking decreases brain volume of developing baby
Infection (e.g. measles) can affect brain development
Voices—> After baby is born, it may already know mother’s voices
Naughty teddy study
41% gave correct answer when display was
all primary students were from the same school
deliberately changes
68% when it was accidental
Conclusion other traditional methods of testing for knowledge of conservation among children may have underestimated their ability
Weakness: Children may have not understood language in experiment or may have not noticed bear changing the display
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Hughes Policeman Doll Study (1975)
Aim: Hughes wanted to make a study of egocentrism with a task children would understand
Method: 30 children from `Edinburgh ages
3.5 - 5
Child is introduced to task. Child is out 90 degrees across from policeman and experiment and asked to hide doll, corrected if wrong.
``test begins with extra doll, asked to hide it from 2 policemen 91% succesful
Piaget’s theory of cognitive development
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Willingham’s learning theory
Willingham believed that praise should be unexpected and given after a task. This was a theory based on previous studies that found praise before task completion reduced motivation.
Memory and forgetting. Trying to recall information may be more effective than trying to memorise it. Practicing retrieving information can help improve recall.
If someone has a cue for memory. It can and recall
Self-regulation:
Rats playing football
Independent variable
Hypothesis
Rats that are reward for scoring point will score more points than rats that are not rewarded for scoring point
Whether or not rats are rewarded
Dependent variable
How many times rats score goals during observation for luck after training
Group 1
Rats are not rewarded for scoring goals
Group 2
Every time a rat scores a goal, the game is paused and rat is rewarded in front of other rats 10g (one mous trap worth) of cheddar
Standardised procedures
Rats should be from same species + habitat + prior lab experience+number of rat
Rats “have Same schodule during experiment
Q hour of no task training” break time”
2 hour. For food
6 hours for task training
15 hours a day sleep
9:00 lights are turned on
9:10 breakfast
9:30 start training
Crrelation_ how thing are linked together
Positive correlation—now goes up, so does other
Negative coorrelation—one goes up, the other goes down
No correlation — no relation ship between vaviable”s
Quantitative
Countable
Qualitative
Uncountable
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Sampling methods
The purpose of the sample is to represent the population being studied
Stratified sampling-participants are selected from different subgroups based on the proportion of the subgroups in the population
It can be difficult to define groups well, resulting in sample bias where one group is over or underrepresented
If done properly, this is one of the most effective sampling techniques to ensure all subgroups are represented.
Random sampling - everyone in the population has an equal chance of being selected for sample
It can be difficult identifying ways to truly implement random sampling in a population because of lack of information about the population members.
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Opportunity samples: Sampling whoever is available to participate
Opportunity sampling may be easily biased
Very convenient sampling technique, but
Systematic sampling: a numerical formula to select a sample
Researcher needs a list of population and used formula to select sample.For example, every 50th person in phonebook
Mostly avoids researcher bias
Can still be biased by test
How often do people break phones?
The independent variable
Brand of people
Price of phone
Dependent variable
Physical breaking of phone after 6 months Lear, 1 half year, 2year
Hypothersis
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