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LTM: Memory with no capacity and duration limit - Coggle Diagram
LTM: Memory with no capacity and duration limit
LTM Tasks and Types of LTM
Tests
Direct memory tests: Tests memory for a specific event or episode (experimental context in which the word occurred), measures explicit or declarative memory
Indirect memory tests: Does not require memory for specific even or episode (study list, then complete a different task such as word fragment completion, perceptual identification), measures implicit or non-declarative memory
Types
Multimemory view of LTM: There are different kinds of LTM
Explicit vs Implicit memory
Explicit/declarative
memory: Memory for
facts and events
. Evaluated by
direct memory tests
Amnesia: Effects episodic memory, but not semantic memory
Retrograde
amnesia: Loss of memory for past information
Anterograde
amnesia: Inability to form new memories
Episodic
memory: Memory for events
Semantic
memory: Abstract meaning, general knowledge, domain specific information
Implicit/non-declarative
memory: Skills and habits (
procedural memory
), priming, conditioning, reflexes. Evaluated by
indirect memory tests
Tasks
Free recall: Recall study list in any order, retrieval cues are self-generated
Serial recall: Recall study list in sequential order, retrieval cues tied to positional cues
Cued recall (paired-associate learning): Memorise pair of words then recall one word given the other word, experimentally manipulated retrieval cues
Recognition: Study a list, the test includes targets (old items) and distractors (new items) and subjects have to identify if the test word appeared in the study list, new/old judgements
Atkinson-Shiffrin Model:Transfer from STM to LTM
Control Processes: Facilitate acquisition of knowledge
Rehearsal: Repetition of information - either aloud or silently - over and over until it's learned
Serial position curve
: Recall words at the beginning and the end of a list better than words in the middle of the list. Primacy effect and recency effect (memory has not decayed from STM, less retroactive interference, doing distractor task eliminates this)
Learning of abstract, meaningless material that is hard to code or image. More
rote learning
Coding: Place the information to be remembered in the context of additional, easily retrievable information (e.g. mnemonics)
Imagery: Creating visual images to remember verbal information
Automatic Processes: Little mental effort
Implicit learning
Conditioning
We will never reach a point where we cannot learn new information because LTM is full
LTM and Effective Learning
Aqcuisition: Good strategies depend on our ability to
judge how well we've learned the material
and
how well we learned from strategies vs others
Judgements of learning can be
inaccurate
: Estimates
inflate shortly after learning has occurred
,
stability bias
(belief that memory is stable over time and failing to account for forgetting)
Inaccurate judgements of when something is encoded into LTM, particularly if they rely on
retrieval fluency
(how easily something comes to mind) shortly after learning
More time, more difficult items. Less time, easier items
Negative recency effect: Depressed recall of words at the end of the list (memorising word list, would typically recall the words at the end of the list easier as it is still in our STM and falsely believe that we could retrieve it later)
LTM Phenomena
Tip of the Tongue
: When someone cannot retrieve something from LTM (successful retrieval is often helped by partial information such as the initial letter or length of a word, which helps limit the search of LTM)
Naturalistic study: A study of the TOT state in which people record these events as they occur outside the lab setting: TOTs occur in daily life about once a week and increases with age. People guess the first letter about 50% of the time. Half of TOTs resolved within a minute
Challenges in studying: People typically retrieve answer either immediately or not at all, use questions that would elicit an emotional reaction
Hypercorrection effect
: LTM improved when one makes an incorrect guess with high confidence and is surprised by the correct answer
Retrieval practice effect
: Taking practice tests improves LTM than repeated studying
Spacing effect
: Repeated learning opportunities that are spread apart in time are more effective than opportunities that are concentrated in time
Spontaneous retrieval: A retrieval that occurs without making a conscious effort to recall information
Metacognition: The selection of strategies for processing information
1.Knowledge acquisition: Storage of information in LTM
Selection of encoding process (rehearsal, coding, or imagery), dependent on the type of information learned
Allocation of study time
Retrieval strategy: A strategy for recalling information from LTM