Theories of Learning
Stages of Learning
(1) Encoding
(2) Storage
(3)Retrieval
Input of information/knowledge absorption
Information encoded and knowledge is retained
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Retrieval practice as a method for increasing student learning
Recalling stored, learned knowledge
Memory Theories
Multi Store Model of Human Memory (Atkinson & Shiffrin)
sensory memory
Short Term Memory
Long Term Memory
Baddeley & Hitch: short term memory has different forms (opening a computer file) in visual spacial form and memories of spoken or written material
episodic buffer
Visuospatial sketchpad
Implicit (not conscious knowledge)
Explicit (Declarative memory)
Episodic
Semantic
Method of retrieval
recognition
relearning
recall
Intelligence
Raymond Cattell: Crystallized and Fluid Intelligence
Fluid Intelligence: ability to see complex relationships and solve problems (abstract challenges)
Crystallized Intelligence: acquired knowledge and the ability to retrieve it (concrete challenges)
Robert Sternberg (Triarchic Theory of Intelligence)
Analytical Intelligence (problem solving and computation
Creative Intelligence (imaginative and innovative problem solving)
Practical Intelligence (street smarts and common sense)
Multiple Intelligences Theory (Howard Gardner) 8 Intelligences. Emotional intelligence.
Logical/Mathematical
Naturalistic
Verbal/Linguistic
Intrapersonal
Interpersonal
Bodily/Kinesthetic
Musical
Visual-Spacial
Instructional Design
Questions to distinguish each learning theory
How does learning occur?
Which Factors influence learning?
What is the role of memory?
How does transfer occur?
What types of learning are best explained by the theory?
What basic assumptions/principles of this theory are relevant to instructional design?
How should instruction be structured to facilitate learning?
Behavioral (stimulus and response and environmental conditions)
Cognitive (thinking, problem solving, language, concept formation and information processing)
Constructive
Social Learning Theory (Vygotsky- developmental theory) way social interactions and culture play into development of higher-order thinking skills (contrast with Piaget)
Psychology tools, especially language, mediate development of higher level functions
learning occurs within the Zone of Proximal Development
Human development and learning originate in social, historical and cultural interactions
Piaget: development through stages is biologically determined, originates in the individual, and precedes cognitive complexity (contrast with Vygotsky)
The distance between the actual development level as determined by independent problem solving and the level of potential development as determined through problem solving under adult guidance or in collaboration with more capable peers
scaffolding (heavily dependent on verbal instruction and not relevant under all cultural circumstances)
B.F. Skinner)
Bloom's Revised Taxonomy of Learning
Radical behaviorism and operant conditioning
Learning Communities
Access
Relationships
Vision
Function
Who is present?
Who feels connected and accepted?
Who shares the vision or purpose?
Who has been organized to achieve some goal?
Theories of Motivation
Expectancy Value Theory
Self Efficacy Theory
Goals and Goal Orientation
Attribution Theory (Weiner): source of motivation is perception of why they have succeeded or failed. Assumes people try to understand causes of success and failure (luck, mood, effort, ability, etc)
Self Determination Theory: focus on different orientations of motivation that influence quality of engagement. Motivation can differ in strength and orientation (reasons we do things). (Autonomy, competence, and relatedness)
Interest
Keller's Arcs Model 1-4 analyze, 5-8 design, 9 develop, 10 evaluate
Two most immediate predictors of achievement behaviors are expectancies for success and task value beliefs
Success: beliefs as to whether a student believes they will do well on an upcoming task- greater expected success= more motivation to engage with it
Task value= "why should I do this task"
Intrinsic value
Attainment Value
Utility Value
Cost
belief in ability to perform a course of action required to achieve a specific task (Bandura). Belief in competence increases motivation to complete task
Higher self-efficacy= more engagement in more challenging tasks, work harder, persist longer when dealing with difficulties, and perform better
Past performance (strongest factor which influences self-efficacy)
Modeling
Verbal Persuasion
Psychological states
Goal content- what the person wants to achieve
Goal Orientation- reason or purpose for engaging in learning activities
Mastery goals: focus on mastering new skills, gain increased understanding, improve competence. Success defined in terms of improvement and learning: Associated with positive achievement outcomes such as high levels of effort, interest in task, and use of deep learning strategies
Performance goals- focus on doing better than others and demonstrating competence; striving to best others, comparing self to others to make judgments about abilities and seeking favorable judgment from others: goals induce detrimental effects such as poor persistence, high anxiety, use of superficial strategies, and low achievement
Avoidance focus- focus on avoiding not mastering task, errors indicate failure, judge performance based on standards of not being wrong
Approach Focus: focus on mastery of learning, learn from errors, judge performance on standards of self-improvement/progress
Approach focus- focus on outperforming others, errors indicate failure, judge performance based on normative standards of being the best performer.
Avoidance focus- focus on avoiding failure, errors indicate failure, judge performance on normative standards of not being the worst performer.
Locus: location of cause (within or outside of an individual). Influences learner's self-esteem and esteem-related emotions. Internal cause more likely to take pride in success and increase esteem
Stability: whether or not the.cause is constant: Influences expected future success. If success attributed to stable cause= expect same outcome in the future
Controllability: how much control an individual has over the cause; failure attributed to uncontrollable causes tends to decrease motivation and engagement
Intrinsic Motivation: one's disposition to engage in a task for their own pleasure.Spontaneous emergence from satisfying basic psychological needs of autonomy, competence, and relatedness
Extrinsic Motivation: motivation to engage in an activity because it is instrumental to some outcomes separated from the activity itself (ex: studying to get a good grade in a subject of non-interest). External, introjected, identified, and integrated motivation
Introjected Motivation: behaviors performed to maintain feeling of self-worth or feeling of guilt
Identified Motivation: individual perceives the value of an activity and considers it to be personally relevant
External Motivation: behaviors enacted to achieve a reward or avoid punishment
Integrated Motivation: value of an activity is fully integrated with a part of the self. Based on internalized importance of the activity, not interest.
Individual: enjoyment and willingness to reengage with a certain object over time- positive feelings and value-related belief that the object is personally important.
Situational: temporary psychological state brought by context in the learning situation. Interest triggered by environmental stimuli.
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Hidi and Renniger: Four-phase model of interest development.
- Maintained situational interest- focused attention and persistence over longer period of time. Person finds meaning in tasks or personal connection to the task.
- Emerging individual interest: transition to individual interest. Individual's tendency to reengage with tasks and generate own curiosity
- Situational interest sparked by environmental features (triggered situational interest)
- Well-Developed Individual Interest: deep seated interest with tendency to engage, with positive feelings, with a topic over an extended period of time.
Relevance: make learning experience personally relevant or meaningful. People engage in activities that help them to reach their goals.
Confidence: pertinent to self-efficacy and expectancies for success. Feeling of competence is a basic human need (self-determination theory). Can help to foster belief that there is control over performance- autonomy support (providing choices, and making internal, controllable attributions).
Attention: stimulating and maintaining learner's interest- attention required before any learning can take place
Satisfaction: continued motivation to learn- if experience satisfying outcomes, increased desire to continue. Satisfying consequences result from both extrinsic and intrinsic matters. However, if extrinsic reward does not fulfill inner needs, satisfaction will not be obtained. Intrinsic satisfaction would be feeling accomplishment of mastery or pleasure of accomplishing a challenging task
Perceptual arousal: capture interest by arousing senses and emotions
Inquiry Arousal: cognitive level of curiosity- attracted to learning materials
Variability: variation needed in instruction methods- lose potency when used unvaringly
Likelihood of response= motivation
reinforcement= motivator
Concepts of ABA: Reinforcement, Punishment, Reinforcement schedules. Scaffolding/task analyses. Must understand what is basically reinforcing for an individual and provide that reinforcement whenever desired behavior is illicit. Danger of reaching satiation of reinforcement which decreases motivation.
Application
Analysis
Comprehension
Synthesis
Knowledge
Evaluation
Remember- recognizing, recalling
Understand- interpreting, exemplifying, classifying, summarizing, interferring, comparing, explaining
Apply- execute, implement
Analyze, differentiate, organize, attribute
Evaluate- check, critique
Create- generate, plan, produce