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AS 215 Notes, Osteoblasts: builds new bones Osteocytes: mature bone cell …

- - - - Ribosomes: composed of two subunits: RNA and protein; the site of protein synthesis
      - Mitochondria: a double membrane bound organelle that has folding cristae which increases surface area for metabolic processes; produces ATP through cellular respiration
      - Endoplasmic Reticulum: a system of sacs that fold extending from the nuclear envelope; one having ribosomes (rough) and one without ribosomes (smooth). Its function is that it makes proteins (Rough ER) and the other (Smooth ER) makes lipids and carbohydrates.
      - Proteasomes: a hollowed cylinder composed of protein subunits and caps on its ends; its function is breaking down abnormal or misfolded protein molecules.
      - Golgi Apparatus: a network of flattened tubes that refines and alters molecules for cell usage and produces lysosomes which are vesicles made up of enzymes that digests absorbed material and waste material
      - Peroxisomes: membrane-bound vesicles containing enzymes. Its function is to detoxify things like alcohol and formaldehyde; removes free radicals
      - Vault: small tubular capsules made up of vRNA and proteins; able to fit into nuclear pore complexes to pick up or drop off molecules in the nucleus
- - - - Organized into tightly packed groups that forms sheets
        
        Each cell is polar, having an apical and basal surface
        
        Having lateral surfaces that connects with neighboring cells through junction complexes
        
        Are avascular, relying on underlying connective issue for blood and oxygen
        
        Are innervated and provides sensory input
    - - Number of layers of cells
        
        Stratified
        
        Simple
      - Shape of cells
        
        Squamous
        
        Cuboidal
        
        Columnar
      - Presence of surface specialization
        
        Cilia, microvilli, keratin, etc.
    - - Junction Complexes: a strong attachment that only utilizes a small portion of the cell membrane to make an attachment
      - Tight Junctions: the fusion of outermost layers of the plasma membrane of adjoining cells
      - Desmosome: a type of junction that connect adjacent cells with filaments tethering the plasma membrane together; hemidesmosomes are half of desmosomes that link epithelial cells to the basement membrane
      - Gap Junctions: an attachment using connexons (tubular channel proteins) and directly links the cytoplasm of two cells together
    - - Endocrine Glands: produce secretions that are distributed throughout the body and doesn’t have any tubules or ducts for transport. They produce hormones that are sent through the bloodstream. The pituitary gland in the brain is an example of an endocrine gland.
      - Exocrine Glands: have ducts, and the secretions often act locally rather than circulating through the bloodstream. The salivary gland in the mouth is an example of an exocrine gland.
  - - - Most abundant tissue by weight
        
        Vascularized (having blood vessels)
        
        Has 2 distinct components
        
        Ground substances
        (can range from liquid to solid)
        
        Extracellular fibers
        (collagenous, reticular, and elastic)
        
        Cell Types
        (fixed; fibroblasts, adipocytes, reticular cells)
        (wandering; mast cells, leukocytes, macrophages)
    - - Proper
        
        Loose
        
        Areolar
        (between muscles; provides nutrients)
        
        Adipose
        (fat)
        
        Reticular
        (spleen, lymph nodes, bone marrow)
        
        Areolar: a tangle of random fibers and cells suspended in thick ground substance; mostly fibroblasts & provide nutrients, surrounds and supports, present in all mucous membranes
        
        Adipose:
        
        Reticular:
        
        An abundant tissue in the body that provides cushioning and lining of the organs for protection
        
        Dense
        
        Regular
        (tendons, ligaments)
        
        Irregular
        (scar tissue, dermis)
        
        Elastic
        (Tendons, wall of arteries)
        
        A web of tightly connected tissue, less common than loose connective tissue that still have fibroblasts that supply fiber and ground substances
      - Specialized
        
        Blood #
        
        Bone #
        
        Cartilege
        
        Hyaline (ribs, trachea, c-rings) (most common)
        
        Elastic (pinna of ear, epglottis) (flexible)
        
        Fibro (pubic & mandibular symphysis) (tough, no bending)
  - - - Skeletal (over bones)
        
        Voluntary
        
        Striated
        
        Multi-nucleated
        
        Sarcomeres: a contractile unit of a muscle fiber with a Z lines defining its edges and made up of myofibrils (myosin and actin)
      - Cardiac (heart only)
        
        Involuntary
        
        Striated
        
        Intercalated Disks
      - Smooth (organs)
        
        Involuntary
        
        Non-striated
  - - - Neuron
        
        Dendrites: receive info
        
        Axon: sends info from nucleus
        
        Cell Body (Soma)
        
        Neuroglial Cells (Supporting Cell)
        
        Telodentrities: sends info
- - - - Erythropoesis: production of erythrocytes (red blood cells)
      - Leukopoesis: production of leukocytes (white blood cells)
      - Thrombopoesis: production of thrombocytes (platelets)
        
        made by megakaryocytes in the bone marrow
    - - Intravascular Hemolysis: the destruction of RBC's inside the blood vessels; RBC's are ruptured & hemoglobin released into blood vessel, picked up by macrophages to be broken down; excess hemoglobin are taken to the kidney to be expelled
      - Extravascular Hemolysis: the destruction and breakdown of RBC's outside of the blood vessel; RBC removed from circulation by macrophages and the hemoglobin and its components are going to be broken down and used for other purposes such as production of new RBC or making bile in the stomach
    - - Cellular:
        
        RBC's
        
        WBC's
        
        Platelets (helps with clotting)
      - Plasma:
        
        Water
        
        Ions
        
        Waste
        
        Nutrients
        
        Protein
    - - Anemia
      - Polycythemia
    - - Plasma: has clotting factors
      - Serum: no clotting factors
    - - Granulocytes: contains granules
        
        Neutrophil:
        
        Multi-lobed nucleus
        
        First responders
        
        Granules don't tend to stain
        
        Help fight infection
        
        Most cmmon in dogs, cats, and horses
        
        Basophil:
        
        Bi-lobed nucleus
        
        Granules stain blue/purple
        
        Heparin & Histamine
        
        Cause inflammation
        
        Allergic Reaction
        
        Eosinophil:
        
        Bi-lobed nucleus
        
        Granules stain red/pink
        
        Deals with parasites & allergies
        
        Large in horses
      - Agranulocytes: does not contain granules
        
        Lymphocyte:
        
        Large nucleus
        
        Immune response
        (T & B cells)
        
        Most common in ruminants & pigs
        
        Monocyte:
        
        Phagocytosis
        
        In blood
        
        Horseshoe nucleus
        
        Macrophage:
        
        In tissue
- - - - Support:
        
        bones serve as scaffolding for the rest of the body such as the tissues and muscles in our body
        
        the body structure is centric around the bones
      - Protection:
        
        the bones serve as a barrier/shield for delicate and vital organs in our body such as our brain with the skull, our ribs for our lungs and heart.
      - Leverage:
        
        the attachment of skeletal muscle to bones allow for movement of the body parts
      - Storage:
        
        bones act as a storage unit for important minerals, mainly calcium and it allows the body to deposit and withdraw calcium as needed for functions
      - Blood cell formation:
        
        in the bone marrow, hematopoiesis occurs
    - - Cancellous Bone:
        
        Spongy-like
        
        Formed with spicules of bone and spaces within
        
        Occupied by bone marrow
        
        Allows it to be lightweight without sacrificing structure
      - Compact Bone:
        
        Dense and heavy
        
        Makes up long shaft of bones in a thin layer and outside of all bones
        
        The Haversian System: made up of tiny, thin, and compact cylinders that run lengthwise of the bone
        
        Haversian canals run nerves, lymph and blood vessels through the bones and Volksmann's canals run perpendicular for blood and lymph vessels to pass through
        
        Canaliculi:
        
        allows for osteoblasts to exchange waste and minerals in the bone
        
        Nutrient Foramina:
        
        allows for the carrying of blood supply in and out of the bones
        
        a hole in the large & long bones
    - - Endochondral Bone Formation:
        
        a cartilage template replaced by bones
        
        primary growth center (diaphysis)
        
        secondary growth center (epiphysis)
      - Intramembranous Bone Formation:
        
        bone develop from fibrous membrane tissue
        
        occurs only in some skull bones
    - - Fibrous Joints
        
        Immovable
        
        Firmly united by fibrous tissue
        
        Ex: plates of the skull
      - Cartilaginous Joints
        
        Slightly movable (rocking motion)
        
        Ex: intervertebral discs
      - Synovial Joints
        
        Freely movable
        
        Articular surface on bones
        
        Articular cartilage covering surfaces
        
        Joint cavity = joint space
        Synovial Fluid
        Synovial Membrane
        
        Ligaments for stabilization
        
        Hinge Joint
        
        Gliding Joint
        
        Ball and Socket Joint
        
        Pivot Joint
- - - - Soma - the cell body where the nucleus is; the acting brain of the cell
        Dendrites - receive stimuli & conduct it in the cell body (afferent processes)
      - Axon - conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body; also referred to as nerve fibers
        
        Covered in a fatty sheath called myelin
      - Myelin Sheath - made up of the cell membranes of specialized glial cells called oligodenrocytes and Schwann cells
      - Neuroglia - also glial cells; important in the infrastructure of the nervous system, supports and protects the neuron
    - - Peripheral Nervous System - made up of components that extend away from the central axis of the body
        
        Nerves that link the CNS to the rest of the body
      - Central Nervous System - made up of the spinal cord and brain
    - - Afferent Impulses:
        
        conduct impulses toward the CNS
      - Efferent Impulses:
        
        conducts impulses toward the CNS
    - - Sodium-Potassium Pump:
        
        Specialized molecule that help maintain cell resting state
        
        Pumps Na++ to the outside
        
        Pumps K+ to the inside
      - Resting Membrane Potential:
        
        Net negative charge
        
        The difference in the electrical charge across the membrane
      - Depolarization: the neuron goes from a negatively charged resting membrane potential to a net postiive charge where the sodium-potassium pump open to let sodium molecules into the cell
        Repolarization: the potassium pumps opens up and pushes out positively charged potassium, leading the cell becoming more negative
    - - Threshold Stimulus
        
        Stimulus is strong enough to complete depolarization and then a nerve impulse is generated
      - All or Nothing Principle
        
        Regardless of the intensity of the stimulus, if it was sufficient to cause a neuron to fire, it will generate a nerve impulse across the neuron with uniform strength