Chromatin: strands of DNA wrapped around a histone protein that condenses into chromosomes during cell division

Ribosomes: composed of two subunits: RNA and protein; the site of protein synthesis

Mitochondria: a double membrane bound organelle that has folding cristae which increases surface area for metabolic processes; produces ATP through cellular respiration

Proteasomes: a hollowed cylinder composed of protein subunits and caps on its ends; its function is breaking down abnormal or misfolded protein molecules.

Vault: small tubular capsules made up of vRNA and proteins; able to fit into nuclear pore complexes to pick up or drop off molecules in the nucleus

Diffusion: the kinetic movement of molecules from higher concentration to lower concentration; molecular size, liquid solubility, and molecular charge are factors that can affect movement

Facilitated Diffusion: selected carrier proteins assist in the movement of moles across a concentration gradient; limited by number of proteins & requires no energy from the cell

Osmosis: the passive movement of water through a semipermeable membrane from dilute solution to a more concentrated one; water is meant to balance (concentration balance)

Filtration: the movement of molecules based on pressure gradient; liquid may be pushed through if the pressure on one side is greater than the other side

• Hypotonic: the concentration is too high inside the cell and it's going to burst
• Hypertonic: the concentration is too low inside the cell and it's going to shrink
• Isotonic: when the concentration is balanced so the cell is normal

Transcription: the process of making mRNA; using the DNA strand to make an RNA copy to perform protein synthesis

Translation: the process of turning mRNA into a protein by way of ribosomes and mRNA that shows how to make the protein using amino acids

Active Transport: certain amino acids and ions need specific carrier proteins in order to move in and out of the cell, meaning that they'll need the energy to do so

• Symport: moves in one direction across the membrane
• Antiport: some can move in one direction; others move in the opposite direction

Cytosis: the process of bringing in nutrients and expelling waste out of the cell

• Endocytosis
• Exocytosis

Anaphase – the spindle fibers will pull apart the chromosomes into halves in prepping for the next phase

Telophase – this is where the two new daughter cells are being formed as the cell divides and through cytokinesis, the two cells are made

Genetic Mutations: during DNA replication, there can be errors made which puts in the wrong 'code' for the DNA strand and thus leads to mutations; sometimes it can be good or bad

Tight Junctions: the fusion of outermost layers of the plasma membrane of adjoining cells

Desmosome: a type of junction that connect adjacent cells with filaments tethering the plasma membrane together; hemidesmosomes are half of desmosomes that link epithelial cells to the basement membrane

Gap Junctions: an attachment using connexons (tubular channel proteins) and directly links the cytoplasm of two cells together

Endocrine Glands: produce secretions that are distributed throughout the body and doesn’t have any tubules or ducts for transport. They produce hormones that are sent through the bloodstream. The pituitary gland in the brain is an example of an endocrine gland.

Exocrine Glands: have ducts, and the secretions often act locally rather than circulating through the bloodstream. The salivary gland in the mouth is an example of an exocrine gland.

• Ground substances
  (can range from liquid to solid)
• Extracellular fibers
  (collagenous, reticular, and elastic)
• Cell Types
  (fixed; fibroblasts, adipocytes, reticular cells)
  (wandering; mast cells, leukocytes, macrophages)

• Hyaline (ribs, trachea, c-rings) (most common)
• Elastic (pinna of ear, epglottis) (flexible)
• Fibro (pubic & mandibular symphysis) (tough, no bending)

Cellular:

• RBC's
• WBC's
• Platelets (helps with clotting)

An abundant tissue in the body that provides cushioning and lining of the organs for protection

A web of tightly connected tissue, less common than loose connective tissue that still have fibroblasts that supply fiber and ground substances

Areolar: a tangle of random fibers and cells suspended in thick ground substance; mostly fibroblasts & provide nutrients, surrounds and supports, present in all mucous membranes

Haversian canals run nerves, lymph and blood vessels through the bones and Volksmann's canals run perpendicular for blood and lymph vessels to pass through

Canaliculi:

• allows for osteoblasts to exchange waste and minerals in the bone

Nutrient Foramina:

• allows for the carrying of blood supply in and out of the bones
• a hole in the large & long bones

Sarcomeres: a contractile unit of a muscle fiber with a Z lines defining its edges and made up of myofibrils (myosin and actin)

Muscle contraction is done through the myosin and actin that has been given energy by ATP

Soma - the cell body where the nucleus is; the acting brain of the cell
Dendrites - receive stimuli & conduct it in the cell body (afferent processes)

Axon - conducts nerve impulses away from the cell body; also referred to as nerve fibers

• Covered in a fatty sheath called myelin

Myelin Sheath - made up of the cell membranes of specialized glial cells called oligodenrocytes and Schwann cells

Neuroglia - also glial cells; important in the infrastructure of the nervous system, supports and protects the neuron

Peripheral Nervous System - made up of components that extend away from the central axis of the body

• Nerves that link the CNS to the rest of the body

Central Nervous System - made up of the spinal cord and brain

Autonomic Nervous System:

• controls automatic functions such as breathing and heartrate
• handles any functions that cannot be handled consciously by the animal
  
  

Somatic Nervous System

• conscious and voluntary control over body parts such as movement of the limbs or blinking

All or Nothing Principle

• Regardless of the intensity of the stimulus, if it was sufficient to cause a neuron to fire, it will generate a nerve impulse across the neuron with uniform strength

Myocardium

• middle & thickest layer of the heart
• made up of cardiac cells that allow for stronger contractions of the heart

Epicardium

• outermost layer, also the visceral layer of the serous pericardium

Endocardium

• innermost layer of the heart
• made up of simple squamous epithelium that lines the heart and its chambers