Please enable JavaScript.
Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.
Global Resource Consumption and Security - Coggle Diagram
Global Resource Consumption and Security
Concepts
Poverty
Difficult to define
Poverty line: used by government to determine the minimum level of income required to secure the necessities in life
Extreme poverty threshold = US$1.90
Middle Class:
households with per capita incomes between $10-$100 per person per day
Resources:
useful to humans, varies across society and time
Natural:
naturally occurring material that a society perceives as useful to economic/social well-being
Renewable:
materials that quickly replenish themselves to be used again and again
Non-renewable:
finite materials that cannot be reused or replaced as they take too long to grow and reform
Ecological Footprint:
theoretical measurement of the amount of land and water a population requires to produce the resources it consumes, and to absorb its waste under prevailing technology
Biocapacity:
ecosystem's capacity to produce resources that are used by people and absorb waste materials produced by humans, assuming current technology and management systems
Carbon Footprint
Croplands
Grazing lands
Forests
Oceans
Built-up land
Biocapacity Debtor Country:
ecological footprint of pop > biocapacity of area
Ecological deficit
Import biocapacity through trade
Overuse ecological assets
Emit CO2 waste
Biocapacity deficit
High resource consumption
Large population relative to area
Biocapacity Creditor Country:
biocapacity of area > population's ecological footprint
Large area compared to population
Low economic development = low resource consumption
Advantages
Monitor and manage resources to secure their future
Measure progress towards goals
Set policies informed by ecological reality
Disadvantages
Difficult to measure/obtain statistics
Different countries have different measures = cannot compare
Wetlands and rivers excluded due to lack of data
Water
Types of Water
Blue:
precipitation that has collected in lakes, rivers and groundwater, and is stored and available for human use until it flow to the ocean or evaporates
Can be extracted, piped, drunk
Household, industrial, agriculture, recreation, power generation
Grey:
wastewater produced by agricultural, manufacturing, household, service activities
Black:
wastewater containing faecal contamination
Cannot be reused
Green:
precipitation that has fallen = stored temporarily as surface, soil moisture, in plants as they grow, before being released back into the atmosphere
Cannot be managed, piped, drunk
60% of precipitation
For food production
Water Scarcity
Types
Physical:
>75% of river flows withdrawn for industrial, agriculture, domestic uses
Approaching/exceeded sustainable levels
Availability of water to demand --> if there is no demand = no scarcity
Australia, South Africa, Middle East
Economic:
<25% water drawn for human use
Water resources are abundant compared to use
Limited by human, institutional, financial capital = water is not available
Sub-saharan Africa, Asia, South America
Factors
Environmental
Climate
Seasonal rainfall:
availability of rainfall only during certain months (India = 90% during monsoon)
Low rainfall:
Australia (moderate of 455mm, unreliable)
High Temperature:
high evapotranspiration (Gaza, 61% lost)
(Geology) Aquifers:
50% of world's drinking/agricultural water
Overexploitation
: fall of water table = cuts supply of water (China: rice production decreased from 140M tonnes in 1997 to 127 in 2005)
Contamination
: sea water, sewage (Gaza, seawater detected 1.5km inland)
Natural Hazards
Earthquake: damage water pipes
Tsunami: contaminates water
Tohoku 2011
= damage water supply facilities in 187 cities, 2.25m households
Human
Population Growth
Shijiazhuang
: population increase to 2.3m = overextraction of groundwater
Income
Affluence:
lifestyle consumes more water
Low income:
cannot build water infrastructure/afford water (
Gaza
: $1.20/cubic metre despite low income = 10,000 without access)
Pollution:
introduction of garbage, chemicals or wastewater without proper regulation
Ganges, India
: leather industries = 400m living along polluted river
Conflict
Shared rivers
(
Mekong, China
dams = flooding, water shortage)
Shared aquifers
(
Israel
consume 86% of aquifer shared with Palestine, pollutes it)
War
(
Gaza
: 30km of infrastructure destroyed by Israel, 11 wells inoperable)
Embedded Water:
quantity of water used in the entire process of producing, selling and consuming a product
Varies by: product, country, type of water used
Maximise green water use, top up with blue water irrigation
Traded together with goods
Food
Costly: dairy, meat
Cheaper: roots, tubers
Energy
Organisations
Organisation of the Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC)
Coordinate and unify petroleum policies
Secure fair and stable prices for producers
Ensure efficient, economic and regular supply to consuming nations
Ensure fair return on capital for those who invest in the industry
Owned 79.4% of oil reserves in 2018
Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development (OECD)
Demographic system of government
Principle of free economy
Usually higher GDP
Sources
Fossil Fuels:
non-renewable, created by anaerobic decomposition of buried, dead organisms
Coal, oil, natural gas (cleanest)
Advantages
Large amounts of energy
Cheap
Pipelines to transport oil and gas
Structures and processes for extraction already in place and mature
Disadvantages
Finite
GHG
SO2 = breathing problems, acid rain
Solar:
light converted to chemical
SG Green
Plan:
20% of schools carbon-neutral
Advantages
Potential in sunny areas
Available for all
Pollution-free
Good for low-power us
Cheap, excluding installation
Disadvantages
High initial costs (solar panels)
Less effective if cloudy
Less effective for high power (cannot control intensity of radiation)
Geothermal
: energy from hot rocks and water beneath the earth's surface
Advantages
Cheap
Pollution-free
Water can be reused
Potential to operate 24/7/365
Disadvantages
Saline groundwater
Restricted to areas with suitable geology (tectonically active)
Maximum 25 years of use
Biofuels:
from biomass
Types
Biodiesel:
vegetables, used cooking oil
Additive to other fuels = reduce pollution by diesel vehicles
Solid Biofuels
Require boilers
Used on power stations, heating systems
Bioethanol:
ferment sugar from plants (maize)
Add to petrol to improve emissions
Brazil, USA
Advantages
Cheap
Renewable
Stable prices compared to oil
Secure supplies
Carbon neutral
Disadvantages
GHG
Increases food prices
Deforestation
Food shortage
Wind Power:
using wind turbines
Advantages
Clean
Renewable
Cheap to produce
Land below can have other uses
Disadvantages
Unreliable
Visual pollution
Noise pollution
Hydropower:
fast running water
Advantages
Pollution-free
Low maintenance, operation costs
Reservoirs can be used for recreation
Large amount of energy
Disadvantages
Expensive
Dam construction risks (3 Gorges, China = silt deposition, flood, landslides)
Nuclear:
fission of uranium atoms
Advantages
Cheaper than FF
Fewer raw materials
Less GHG
Waste stored safely underground
Disadvantages
Radioactive waste (terrorist, accident, cancer, weapon)
Costly to build power plants
Resource Security
Water-Energy-Food Nexus
Collision of systems creating a more complex set of relationships, challenges and opportunities
Food-Water
Crop irrigation
Fertilisers, pesticides pollute water
Water-Energy
Water to cool power plants
Energy-Food
Green revolution
Fertiliser production
Processing
Livestock transport
Case Studies
Singapore
Water
Diversified: imported, local catchment, NEWater, desalination
141L per person per day
Rainfall increased by 67mm/decade since 1980 = more supply
Water Conservation Awareness Programme:
water saving tips and devices (5% drop in monthly, 165L/person to 141L fr. 2013-2019)
Food
90% imported
Diversified: 170 sources
Only 1% of land suitable for local production = buffer supply
2600kcal to 2470kcal from 2010 to 2018
CC = increased cost of imports, changes pH of water --> fish
Funding for rooftop/vertical farming
Encourage home-farming by distributing seeds
Invest in indoor farming = less affected by CC
Energy
27% reserve margins, 0.25 minute interruption
8361kWh/capita/year
95% natural gas, rest coal, oil, solar, municipal waste
Imported electricity (Laos, Malaysia, Thailand)
Emerging energy-intensive data sectors
Solar target = 2GWp by 2030
EMA: invest in energy efficient, competitive technology
Low carbon solutions (carbon capture, hydrogen)
Nigeria
Water
Economic water scarcity: Only 19% of 56 trillion gallons of surface water used
Rivers polluted by metals, pesticides
34.9L per person per day --> costs 7% of monthly income
Droughts = less water in aquifers, rivers
Govt, WaterAid
National Plan:
increase technical capacity of water storage
WASH Fund:
align resources with expenditure to attain SDG for water and sanitation by 2030
Energy
60% electrification = 1.6M households without
Coal, petroleum, natural gas, peat, hydropower, solar, wind
123kWh/capita/year
Gas supply constraints --> pipeline vandalism (potential 30% increase)
Drying of Lake Chad, Niger River
World Bank:
$486M to upgrade and expand electricity transmission network
Nigeria Electrification Project:
renewable energy for offgrid communities
National Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Policy:
diversify, incentivise, promote research
Food
Net food importer = $10B annually
Subsistence, local: yam, cassava, maize
Neglect food production to export oil
Boko Haram conflicts = increased prices, lower purchasing power
Extreme weather events, low tech = soil degradation, low yields
Government
Climate resilient seeds/higher yield, nutritional value
Training on food production practices
Fertilisers for small-scale farmers
Rural Poor Stimulus Facility:
$US900,000 for rural, small farmers
Waste
Case Study: Singapore
Waste Reduction:
efforts taken to reduce the generation of waste through recycling or reuse
Innovative technology to reduce waste
Work with Industries
IKEA: no plastic bags
GRABFOOD: option to not take plastic cutlery
Recycling:
processing of industrial and household waste so it can be reused
Encourage participation
Programmes, publicity, recognition
Develop the market
Improve the quality of recycled products
Infrastructural Support
Bins and facilities
Convenient to recycle
Substitution:
use of common and less valuable resources instead of rare, more expensive resources
Copper --> aluminium
Styrofoam --> cardboard
Fossil --> renewable
Green Plan 2002
Change from oil to natural gas (95.5% in 2015)
Conservation:
management of human use of natural resources
Water Efficient Homes (2003)
Help residents save water = cut bills
Mandatory WELS (2009)
Grading system of 0-3 ticks
Reflects water efficiency
E-Waste:
all electrical/electronic equipment and its parts that have been discarded without the intention of reuse
Problems
High Volume
Rapid obsolescence
Higher income = demand newest
Complexity
Different materials mixed = difficult to separate
Toxic materials contaminate others
Financial Incentives (Lack)
Not enough value to cover the costs of responsible recycling
Burn/discard instead
Send to low-income countries
Lack of Regulations
Not responsibly recycled
Labourers not protected
Labour Issues
Lack labour standards, rights
Not properly compensated
Occupational exposure
Toxic Design
Heavy metals, plastics
Health and environmental issues when burnt
Movement
From NA, Europe
Expensive to recycle
Avoid disposal responsibilities
Exploit the environmental consciousness of citizens
To Africa, Asia
Lack of jobs for locals = small profits
Uneducated
Weaker environmental regulations
Case Study: Guiyu
80% of population in E-waste recycling
Unaware of dangers
Health Problems
Inhale toxic fumes =
lead poisoning
in children
High level of
flame retardants in blood
Highest Levels of Cancer-causing Dioxins
Printer Toner Recovery = carcinogens
Economic Water Scarcity
Acid stripping
= dumped = pH 0
Melting circuit boards = heavy metals saturate soils
Views
Malthusian (Thomas Malthus):
fixed environmental ceiling to population growth = population will exceed food supply without checks on reproduction
Human pop grows
exponentially,
food production
linear
Positive checks:
overshoot = lack of food = famine, disease, war brings population back to sustainable levels
Negative checks:
measures before overshooting (later age of marriage)
Evidence:
Correlation between fluctuations in crop prices and marriage rates in rural England
Early 1800s = limits to agricultural productivity gains
However:
New lands for cultivation
Development of irrigation systems
Green revolution
Slowing of population growth as economy develops
Neo-Malthusian (Club of Rome)
:
Food output and population grow exponentially
Rapidly diminishing resource base = slowdown in industrial growth
Delays = population and pollution continue to increase after the peak of industrialisation
Insufficient food = increased death rate = halts population growth
Alter growth trends: sustainable environmental and economic stability
Evidence
Global decline in area of farmland per person
Steep increase in costs of food products
Growing scarcity of fish
Impact of climate change on agriculture
However
Does not distinguish different parts of world
Ignores spatial distribution of population, resources, activity, pollution
Does not consider the rate of discovery of new resources, technologies
Anti-Malthusian (Esther Boserup):
carrying capacity (resources) will increase with human population
Improvement in technology will increase crop yields
Resource substitution will overcome depletion
Recycling to conserve existing resources
Evidence
Replacement of less efficient with more efficient resources
Rapid development of green technology
Advance in agricultural research
Stabilising consumption levels in some countries
Resource Stewardship:
encourages a sustainable and responsible approach to managing resources that looks towards the needs of future generations rather than seeking immediate, short-term outcomes
Conservation:
protecting and preserving valuable resources
Hard Conservation:
preservation of a resource by prohibiting any adverse human impact
Soft Conservation:
allows usage but insists there should be no wastage of the resource
New Zealand
Cut speed limit from 100 --> 80km/h = 20% fall in petrol consumption
Cars: fuel-efficient, hybrid engines, aerodynamic body shapes
Emission control rules
Solar/electric cars = cannot match petrol engines
Linear Economy:
take finite natural resources and manufacture them into products for consumption = waste
Circular Economy:
products and services are traded in closed loops and there is no waste
Cycles
Inner circle: goods with active life and high value
Outer circle: goods have to be broken down into constituents
Biological Cycle
Food, organic materials from agriculture, water
Renewable if consumed responsibly (not contaminated/overconsumed)
Production and packaging decisions: compostable
Technical Cycle
Non-biodegradable --> consumerables
Valuable metals recycled = extends resource life beyond usability of one individual
Less easily disassembled = expensive to recycle
Powers
Power of Circling Longer:
reuse, redistribute, refurbish, remanufacture for a longer time
Prevents waste
Saves expenditure on labour, materials, investment, energy for new product
Power of the Inner Circle:
maintain technical materials to prolong working lives = not discarded so often
Maintained/repaired more quickly = increase value by saving labour, funds, materials, energy
Power of Cascaded Use:
waste from one industry is used productively in other industries
Cotton from clothing = fill cushions = insulation for housing = decompose to nutrients
Power of Pure Inputs:
uncontaminated resources can be reused safely, maintaining the quality of products
Extends the life of products = reduces waste
Examples
Renault
Recycle car batteries = energy storage for solar panels (cascading)
Chemically extract metals from batteries (circling longer)
30% = recycled products
Nike
Biodegradable shoes from recycled materials (non-toxic = pure inputs, environmentally-friendly rubber, water-based adhesives)
Reuse-A-Shoe programme: 32M pairs + 120M pounds of scraps
Plastic bottles = shirts, 30M recycled/year (cascading)
75% of apparel + shoes have recycled material
Timberland + OMNI United
Green rubber: turn waste tyres into new materials = 42% recycled outsole
Circling longer, cascading
Alaska Airlines
Repurpose seat leather = handbags, purses, soccer boots
5000 pounds recycled, 10M gallons water saved (cascading)
Recycle trays, used cups, toilet paper (circling longer)
Compost used coffee beans, food waste
Sustainable aviation biofuel
Sustainable Development Goals:
new universal set of goals, targets and indicators that UN member states are expected to use to frame their agendas and political policies till 2030
Improved on MDGs which expired in 2015
Did not consider the root cause of poverty
Overlooked gender inequality and the holistic nature of development
No mention of human rights and economic development explicitly
Targets for poorer countries financed by richer countries
Narrow perspectives
Goal 1: No Poverty
Eradicate extreme poverty for all everywhere (<$1.25/day)
Reduce the number of people living in poverty in all dimensions according to national definitions, by half
Efforts
Governments had 1600 short-term social protection measures for COVID-19
118 countries reported Local Disaster Reduction Strategies in April 2021
ODA grants for basic social services and food aid
Progress
Before pandemic: Decrease in poverty from 10.1% in 2015 to 9.3% in 2017
Pandemic: Increase in poverty rate for the first time in 20 years
Example: Panama
Training
to improve the entrepreneurial skills of artisans = 50% increase in income, raise prices in fashion
Rural tourism routes:
profits for small businesses along route
Evaluation
Projected global poverty rate in 2030 = 7%
COVID + CC + Conflict = goal unachievable unless substantial policy action is taken
Goal 6: Clean Water and Sanitation
Achieve universal and equitable access to safe, affordable drinking water for all
Improve water quality (reduce pollution, eliminate dumping, minimise release of hazardous materials, half proportion of untreated wastewater)
Increase recycling and safe reuse globally
Progress
2000-2020: using safe water, sanitation increased by 2B and 2.4B
2B lack drinking water, 3.6B lack sanitation, 2.3B lack basic hygiene services in 2020
Global use efficiency increased from $17.3-19/mcube in 2018
Efforts
2018, 2019: 109 reporting countries = laws, policies for participation of local communities in water sanitation
Evaluation
129 countries not on track to meet target
Rate of implementation has to double globally
