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Atmospheric System, Climate Change: long-term change in earth's…
Atmospheric System
Atmosphere
- Energy Balance: move to a state of equilibrium
Natural Greenhouse Effect: some insolation reaches the earth's surface, and the earth re-emits as longwave radiation. Some energy is reabsorbed by greenhouse gases which keeps the earth warmGHG: gaseous compounds in the atmosphere that are efficient in trapping heat by absorbing infrared radiation.
- CO2: respiration, volcano, FF
- Nitrogen oxides: volcano, lightning, FF
- Methane: ruminants, waste decomposition, livestock farming
Enhanced Greenhouse Effect: natural greenhouse effect enhanced by increased concentration of GHG emissions
Global Energy BalanceRadiative Forcing: change in balance between insolation and energy radiated back to space
- Positive forcing: more insolation, less longwave radiation
- Negative forcing: less insolation, more longwave radiation
Forcing Agents: pressures and process that cause radiative forcing
- External forcings: factors external to the earth's atmospheric system and cause a long-change in balance
(atmospheric composition, volcano, earth's orbit around sun)
Incoming Solar Radiation
Sunspot Cycle: changes in magnetic field cause the sun to emit varying amounts of solar radiation = 11 year cycle
Solar maximum: period the sun has increased magnetic activity = global brightening = increased solar radiation = increased tempSolar minimum: period the sun has decreased magnetic activity = global dimming = decreased solar radiation = decreased temp
- 1.6% of warming from 1955-2005
- cooling effect of -0.004 degrees a decade from 1979-2005
Global dimming
- Sulfur-based particles, dust, ash reflect solar energy back
Mount Pinatubo, Philippines (1991)
- 17m tonnes SO2 = spread around earth in 2 weeks
- 0.6 degree decrease for 2 years
- Short-term effects
- Underwater volcanoes are balanced by carbon sinks (ocean floor lava)
- Land volcanoes release less CO2 than humans
-
Feedback Loops
Positive
- Winter warming, ice caps melt, lower albedo, less reflection of solar radiation, more energy absorbed, increased temp
- Thawing of permafrost = releases methane from rotting vegetation
Negative
- Increased temp = increased evaporation, snowfall, increased albedo = less solar energy absorbed
- More CO2 = photosynthesis = plant growth = increased store of terrestial carbon
- Evaporation in tropical + temperate areas = increased snowfall
Biomes, Ecosystem
- Biome: world's total collection of a particular type of vegetation community, such as rainforests, deserts, grasslands and tundra, and its fauna
- Ecosystem: interdependent community of plants and animals together with the habitat they have adapted to.
= interrelated
= vulnerable (narrow tolerance levels)
= limiting factor
= ecological niche (role)
Climate Change: long-term change in earth's climate or in the climate of a region or city.
Global Warming: long-term increase in the earth's average temperature
Impacts
Hydrosphere
Melting Glaciers
- Glaciers: slow moving rivers of ice
- Snow accumulates and is compacted to become ice --> constricted by the edges of a valley = forced to flow downhill through the valley, eroding its sides
- Zone of Accumulation: upper zone where more moisture is added than lost
- Zone of Ablation: lower zone where more moisture is lost than added
- Dynamic Equilibrium: advances and retreats the same amount each year
- Summer: ablation expands and retreats upwards, accumulation shrinks
- Winter: glaciers grows
Increased temp, less precipitation = accumulation starved of moisture input = ablation more active = Glacial retreat
- Arctic Sea Ice: 6.7Msqkm in 1984 to 3.41 in 2012
- Exposes bare rock + soil --> slow to be colonised by vegetation in cold, alpine climate = erosion, rock falls, landslides
- Less tourists
- Initial increase in meltwater from glacier + less ice = less streams, evaporation, precipitation
- Lower's albedo
- Loss of habitat
Rise in Sea Level: Increase in the mean height of the sea's surface between high tide and low tide relative to the land
- Melting of ice caps/glaciers in Greenland + Antarctica
- Thermal expansion
- Waves have additional erosive energy = aggravated erosion at coastal areas
- Flood low-lying areas
- Intergovernmental Panel on CC: 33% of coastal land lost in 100 years at current rates (Bangladesh, Kiribati, Tuvalu, Marshall Islands, Solomon Islands)
Permafrost: permanently frozen ground that forms when soil temperatures remain below 0 for at least 2 consecutive years, freezing any liquid water that has seeped between soil particles.
- Greenland, Canada, Northern Russia
- Global warming, clearing of vegetation, heated buildings
- Unstable soil = increased risk of landslides
- Major store of 1672 gigatonnes of carbon
Carbon, Atmosphere
- Carbon reservoir: places where carbon is stored naturally
- Carbon sink: captures more carbon than it emits
- Carbon source: return carbon to atmosphere as CO2 or CH4 by combustion or respiration
- Carbon Cycle: storage and movement
Plants
- Photosynthesis (increases with CO2)
- Respiration and decomposition
- Increased CO2 = lower nutritional value of crops
- Increased temp = greater bacteria and microorganism activity to break down fertile matter
- Higher temp and CO2 = more weeds
- Pests expand habitats: rice leaf blasts - Management + Technological Reasons (switch crops, alter planting/harvesting time, install/modify irrigation systems, change fertilisers)
Oceans
- CO2 dissolves
- Calcium carbonate shells
- Photosynthesis
- Ocean Acidification: carbonic acid decrease pH by 0.3-0.4 by end of century = H+ combines with CO3 2- to form more HCO3-
= lower rate of calcification + production of calcifying organisms, coral reefs
Extreme Weather events: severe and rare weather phenomena that results in significant economic losses and loss of lives.
- More precipitation in Americas, Northern + Central Asia
- Less precipitation in tropics
- Increased frequency and intensity of droughts
- Less snow cover in spring between lat 40-60
- El Nino with increased frequency and intensity
Animal Migration
Seasonal annual migration
- avoid extremes of heat and cold
- Early onset of spring = birds nest earlier
- Birds return north 13 days earlier
- Butterfly species in California bring annual migration forward
Permanent Migration
- Range shift: response when animal species face changes in the condition of their habitat
- Increased temps = migrate North permanently
- Canada Lynx --> suitable snow cover in Canada drop by 10-20%
People
Livestock
- Increased susceptibility to disease
- Increased stress = lower yields of milk, wool
- Parasites, pathogens survive more easily = increased prevalence of diseases
Diseases
- Expands habitat of vectors
Rise in Ocean temperatures
- Cholera-bearing zooplankton to shore
- Temp + nutrients = algal blooms eaten
Economy
- Lower crop productivity
- Increased extreme weather events (Hurricane Katrina 2005, destroyed 126 oil/gas platforms)
- Higher insurance premiums
- Donor fatigue
Ocean Transport Routes
- Sea ice melts
- Existing open longer
- New ice-free shipping routes
Advantages
- Shorter Northern Sea Route over Suez Canal
- Saves time
- Saves fuel and staff costs
Disadvantages
- Icebergs may damage ships
- Overfishing in the arctic
- Increased destruction of the vulnerable area
- Rising sea levels = less clearance under waterway bridges
Vulnerability to Impacts
Location
- Temperate: extreme weather, diseases
- Arid: drought, fires, water shortage
- Coastal: sea level rise
- Low latitude: hurricanes, lower crop productivity
Wealth, Education (Low Income)
- Live in vulnerable areas (cheaper)
- Unable to migrate
- Illegal migrants without rights/protection
- Lower preparedness
- Less aware of risks
Age, Gender
- Old/young: lower immunity, ability to move, stubborn
- Females: lack education, homemakers
Risk Perception
- Government = influential, financial power to take action
- Media: influence views and opinions to prompt action/opp
Strategies
-
-
Case Study: Singapore
Singapore Green Plan 2002: Ministry of Environment aim to produce 60% of energy by natural gas by 2012
- Produced 79% by 2010 (exceeded target ahead of time)
- Lower GHG emissions
- Complex treatment plants/pipes
- High maintenance costs (underground pipes)
Green Mark Scheme 2005: BCA certifies buildings based on energy-efficiency + environmentally friendliness
- 15-35% energy savings
- Lower GHG
- Companies were conservative about new ideas
- High initial costs
Plant-A-Tree Programme 1971: Garden City Fund + Singapore Environmental Council --> donate/buy a tree, tree-planting events = Garden City
- 60,000 trees/year by NParks
- Takes at least 25 years to materialise
Case Study: India
National Urban Transport Policy 2006: Ministry of Urban Development = reduce number of vehicles by encouraging public transport, cleaner technologies, reducing travel distances between cities
- Funds = governments designed and implemented urban transport networks
- 20-68 Bus Rapid Cities from 2006-2010
- Rail expansion 186km, 1.8m people = lower GHG by 6.3m tonnes
- Lots of time, resources to build infrastructure
- High capital costs
- More people can afford private = use less public
Energy Labelling Programme 2007: Bureau of Energy Efficiency = inform consumers of energy consumption of product, lower prices for energy-saving products
- Increases sales for energy-saving products
- No standards for labelling some applicances
- Unaware of programme
- Still use coal-fired power stations
Case Studies
Kiribati
- Tropical (warm, humid)
- 33 islands (coral atolls)
- Low-lying
- 30% unemployed
Impacts
Enhanced La Nina Events
- Decreased rainfall = drought
- Seawater intrudes
- Water shortage, water-borne diseases
Ocean Acidification
- Less growth of atolls that sustain shoreline = erosion
Sea Level Rise
- Increased flooding, wave attack = damage infrastructure (roads, seawalls)
- Saltwater destroys cultivation
- Flooding hinders transport
- Saltwater enroachment = contaminates water, prevents palm tree growth
- Tsunami threat
Efforts
Government
- Purchased 20kmsq of land in Fiji
- Sandbag seawalls
- Mangroves = absorb wave energy, CO2, buffer for storms, decrease nutrient runoff and ocean pollution, maintenance free
Community
- Seawalls from corals, old rubber tyres
- Fences = easily replaced
Foreign Aid (Funding)
- IO: European Union, New Zealand Aid Programme, AusAID
- UNDP, UNESCO, UNICEF
Turkmenistan
- Arid, low rainfall, large temperature range
- Relies on fossil fuels, cotton production
Impacts
Erosion of slopes of valleys: increased rainfall
- Less land for grazing = loss of livelihood
- Lower water quality in mountain streams on valleys = diseases
Droughts: increased evaporation rates
- Water shortage
- Lower crop productivity
- Less vegetation = more wind-blown erosion + sand storms
Efforts
Community
- Expand agricultural areas/production
Government
- National Climate Change Strategy: Greener energy, cleaner fuel (gas), energy efficiency
- Advanced irrigation methods
- Incentives for rational water consumption
- Cultivate salt-resistant plants
Others
- Stabilise dune areas with reed cells = less sand blown
- Plant trees to stabilise soil, provide shade and increase humidity
- Education: improve soil moisture conditions, offset slope degradation
Funding
- Adaptation Fund
- Green Climate Fund
- Global Environment Funding
-
Technological Fixes
- Geo-engineering: deliberate, large-scale manipulation of planetary environment to counteract anthropogenic climate change
Carbon Capture and Storage
- Separate CO2 from emissions = compress and transport by pipelines = inject into porous rocks deep underground, in ocean
Good
- Potential to reduce coal-fired power station emissions by up to 90%
- Provide up to 50% of world's carbon mitigation till 2100
Bad
- Piloting: far from mature
- Technology is expensive and complex
- Uncertainty of success = possible leakage to surface
Sunlight Reflection
- Mimic global dimming: mirrors in orbit, inject sulfate aerosol particles
- Lower albedo: spray seawater on low-level marine clouds to whiten
Bad
- Cost
- Safety risks for orbital mirrors
- Technology may affect the weather of another country = geopolitical tensions
- Aerosol particles destroy ozone = more UV
- Decreases efficiency of solar power systems
Civil Society and Corporate Strategies
- Community of people with a common cause
World Wildlife Fund
- Pressure major economies to reduce emissions
- Call on governments to sign international agreements
- Encourage people to use new technologies, greener lifestyle
One-in-Five-Challenge
- Encourage companies, govt agencies to reduce the environmental impact of business travel
Vodafone: invest in video conferencing facilities
5 months:
- 3600 hrs video conferencing
- Travelled 320,000km less
- Saved 1/3 costs of previous air travel
USA
NextGen Climate
- Environmental pressure group
- Engage politically with millennials about CC, clean energy
- Advise voters on which politicians share their concerns
Citizens
- Adapt to arid conditions
- Drought-tolerant 'desert landscaping'
ExxonMobil
- Invest in CCS research, support CCS tech
- Customers trust them = long-term profits
Atmosphere, Troposphere, Stratosphere, Mesosphere, Thermosphere