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IGCSE Psychology, 9 Markers - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Stratified
        
        This is when you match all of the groups in your sample to match the target population, e.g 18% african american, 7% indian, etc.
        
        This is unbiased, and has ecological validity, however it is difficult to perform
      - Random
        
        Every member in a target population has an equal chance of being chosen, e.g pulling names out of a hat
        
        This is unbiased, however lacks ecological validity, and is easy to perform
      - Systematic
        
        This is when you choose the Nth number of a list of your target population.
        
        This is unbiased, however lacks ecological validity, and is relatively easy to do
      - Oppurtunity
        
        Whatever members of the target population are available to your experiment to be chosen
        
        This is biased, as the experimenter could look for certain people. This means that it lacks ecological validity, as there is always a degree of bias. This is also easy to perform
      - Target populations
        
        The target population is the overall population that the experiment is directed at, for example students aged 10-12
      - Volunteer
        
        Choosing the people that volunteer for your experiments.
        
        Lacks ecological validity, as only a specific type of people will volunteer, e.g extroverts. Despite this, it is the easiest to do as the experimenter has to do little work.
  - - - A null hypothesis states that nothing will happen
      - A non-directional hypothesis states that the independent variable will have an unspecified effect on the dependent variable
      - A directional hypothesis states that the independent variable will have a specified effect on the dependent variable.
        
        To do this, we need to operationalize the hypothesis. To do this, we need to specify what will change, and how we will measure it. For example, listening to music while revising will increase the number of questions that are correctly answered in the test by the student.
  - - - Case studies are in depth investigations of a particular individual that is unique, for example a criminal. These are often large amounts of detailed information on one person.
        
        These have a lot of detailed information on one person, and they record behavior over time, so changes can be observed. However, the data collected is the only secondary source, so any errors cannot be corrected.
    - - The observation method is an experimental method. These are usually field studies. They often have are used to see how people act when they do not know they are being observed. For example, observing bystander effect.
        
        They can be operationalized by counting the types of behavior that is exhibited. They have the highest ecological validity of all studies, as there are no demand characteristics. However, it has some ethical issues, and also, the result can be altered by the observer, so it can be unreliable.
    - - Questionnares
        
        Questionnaires can get large amounts of specific information from a population with little effort.
        
        The main strength is that a lot of data can be gathered quickly. Closed questions are easy to score, and open ones can get lots of detailed information. They are ethical because everyone consents and they know what the questions they are asking. However, they cannot be checked so false information is common.
      - Interviews
        
        Interviews can take 2 types. Structured and Unstructured. Structured is just the same questions, but unstructured allows you to change them.
        
        Interviews can produ
  - - - Independent Groups
        
        2 separate groups for each test. e.g group 1 no music, and group 2 music.
        
        Dispositional factors do affect the results, order effects are not there, and more people are needed, therefore more effort.
      - Repeated Measures
        
        One group of participants, they perform in both tests.
        
        This allows order effects, which can affect your results. However, you need less people, and dispositional factors do not affect this design.
      - Matched Pairs
        
        In this design, participants with the same characteristics are put in pairs. These pairs are then split into each test, so that their dispositional factors cannot affect correlation, because the same.
        
        No order effects, no dispositional factors, however people are hard to find, more effort for experimenter
      - Allocation of participants to conditions
        
        Random allocation
        
        This uses randomization to allocate each person to each condition. This creates order effects, but makes the study less biased.
        
        Counterbalancing
        
        Half of each group does condition a first, then the other half does condition b. This does not remove order effects, but it does share the effects evenly between conditions
  - - - The independent variable is the variable that is changed in an experiment, for example, studying with music, or without music.
    - - The dependent variable is the item that we measure, that depends on the independent variable.
    - - The control variables are the things that need to be kept the same. These are to ensure we have an obvious correlation.
      - Extraneous Variables
        
        These are a variable that is out of our control, that can affect the experiment, e.g the environment of an experiment.
  - - - A correlation is a direct relationships between two factors. This is what psychologists look for. An example of this would be when something increases, then the other decreases in the same amount.
    - - A graph is a good way to represent data that we find. There are 2-3 types of graph to use here.
        
        Qualitative Data can be represented on a bar graph. Ensure to leave a space between bars.
        
        Scatter diagrams are used to find correlations. These work for continuous data. The shape it takes often represents a correlation, e.g negative gradient, negative correlation, or a positive gradient being a positive correlation.
- - - - The PNS has the somatic, and the autonomic divisions.
        
        The peripheral nervous system is a network of special nerves which take info from the CNS. It is divided into the Somatic and Autonomic nervous systems.
        
        The SNS controls muscle movement and takes sensory receptors.
        
        The autonomic takes in information and transmits information to the brain. It controls breathing, heart rate, digestion and responses.
        
        This can be split into the sympathetic and parasympathetic nervous system.
        
        The Sympathetic Nervous system is responsible for preparing us for dangerous systems. It stops digestion, respiration and heart rate. Blood flows from organs to muscles to allow you to fight and run away
        
        This is called fight or flight
        
        2 more items...
        
        The Parasympathetic nervous system is responsible for bringing our vital signs back down to normal. This means that digestion starts again, and heart rate becomes normal.
      - And the central nervous system, which is in charge of coordinating decisions about movement and other activities. Each hemisphere controls the opposite side of the body
  - - - There are 3 Types
        
        Motor Neurons
        
        These are in charge of carrying electrical signals from the CNS to muscles and glands. This can only travel in one direction
        
        Sensory Neurons
        
        These carry electrical nerve signals from the outer parts of your body, like eyes, ears, etc. to the CNS.
        
        Relay Neurons
        
        These are in charge of connecting various neurons within the CNS. This allows sensory and motor neurons to communicate. The electro-chemical signal can travel in either direction
      - All Neurons have a specific structure.
        
        They have dendrites at the top. These are responsible for receiving signals
        
        They have a myelin sheath. This is to insulate the Axon.
        
        The axon terminals are where synaptic transmission occurs.
        
        The action potential is the direction in which electricity flows.
    - - The neurotransmitters are responsible for transmitting the electriity.
      - The vesicles store the neurotransmitters.
      - The gap they have to cross is called the synaptic cleft. They go from the pre-synaptic neuron to the post-synaptic neuron.
      - To cross the synaptic junction, the neurotransmitters are released from the axon terminal. They diffuse across the synaptic cleft, and bind to the receptor sites. The excess neurotransmitter is reabsorbed in the presynaptic knob, stored for later release.
        
        The activated receptor sites then send either excitatory or inhibitory effects.
  - - - The frontal lobe and motor cortex are responsible. They are responsible for organizing thought. The motor cortex is responsible for movement
      - the sensory cortex connects to the skin and sensory organs, and is in charge of responding to emotions
      - The parietal lobe is responsible for perception, emotions and sensations
      - The occipital lobe is responsible for receiving and processing optical information
      - The cerebellum is responsible for fine motor actions, and balance.
    - - Both hemispheres control the opposite half of the body
      - This can be evident in the language areas of the brain.
        
        The broca's area is responsible for producing language. Damage to here results in a condition known as broca's aphasia. He noticed that when people had a stroke in this area
        
        The Wernicke's area is responsible for the understanding of language. This means that damage to this area results in Wernicke's aphasia, where people cannot understand language but can produce it easily.
  - - - Cognitive neuroscience is the study of the mental processes of the mind, such as memory and perception
      - Behavioral neuroscience is the study of the physical aspect of the brain.
      - The brain can be scanned to find out more
        
        CT scans involve numerous x-ray slices which are build up to create a 3D image.
        
        PET scans work by injecting a radioactive tracer, which is then observed moving through the body, forming a blood flow scan.
        
        FMRI scans use a magnet, which observes the hemoglobin which contains iron, which allows us to see blood flow.
      - The brain can also be damaged. This is called neurological damage, and refers to any neuron connections being broken, permanently or temporarily
- - - - Perception can be:
        
        Auditory -Sound
        
        Olfactory - Smell
        
        Tactile - Feel
        
        Visual - See
        
        When we are seeing, our brain uses visual cues to judge distances and depth
        
        There are monocular, which use one eye
        
        Height in plane - objects closer to you appear lower in your visual plane, while those further away appear to be higher up.
        
        Relative Size, where objects are closer appear larger, and further away appear smaller.
        
        Occlusion - Objects closer cover up objects further away
        
        Linear perspective - Straight lines appear to be pointing to a vanishing point in the middle of the horizon.
        
        And Binocular, which use 2
        
        Convergence - The brain detects how the eye muscle focuses, and uses this to gauge distance.
        
        Retinal disparity - this is when the brain compares 2 images, 1 from each eye and uses them to form 1 image.
        
        Gustatory - Taste
  - - - The way we are raised can affect how we see, for example children who watch cartoons can see an elephant one way, whereas those who don't will draw the elephant top down,.
    - - Motivation can affect how we perceive, for example in an ambiguous picture, people will perceive the black man to be comfiting a crime
- - - - We conform because there is a need to be correct, for example when we are in an unfamiliar situation, we will follow those who we think are correct. This is known as informational social influence.
      - We can also conform to be liked, for example when we are in social situations, we want to be accepted by other people, meaning that we are likely to do or say things that make us popular
    - - Group size - we are more likely to adopt the behaviour of others when we are in a group with three or more other people.
      - Task Difficulty - We show higher levels of conformity when we are performing a difficult task, as we look to others to guide our judgement.
      - Anonymity - When in public, we can face ridicule and not being liked by other, so if we are anonymous, we feel more comfortable to be ourselves
    - - Some personality can change how we conform, for example people with low IQ are more likely to conform.
      - Expertise - If we have expertise, we are less likely to conform, as we know we are correct. This may also explain why older people conform less than younger people
  - - - Milgram believed that there are 2 states of obedience. There is the autonomous state, where we are free to choose how we behave, and can take responsibility for our action
        
        There is also the agency state, where we are more likely to obey orders from authority figures, as we believe we have no responsibility and are following an order figure. The change from the autonomous state to this is known as the agentic shift
    - - Authority - People with higher positions of authority are more likely to get others to conform. This means that we are more likely to obey those that we believe to be in a higher position than us.
      - Culture - the way we are raised, and where we live can affect how we obey. There is less obedience in individualistic cultures, and more in collectivist cultures.
      - Proximity- The closer we are to an authority figure can affect how we obey, as there are more consequences.
  - - - Social factors can affect bystander behaviour.
        
        The presence of others - with more people, the bystander effect is much more common, as there is more diffusion of responsibility. This also works in the direct opposite manner, where if we are the only person here, we will act.
        
        Cost of helping - we are less likely to help people if it is detrimental to us, where we may get hurt, inconvenienced, etc.
        
        Expertise- we are more likely to help people if we know what we are doing, as we wont harm them
        
        If we are similiar to the victim, we have empathy and are more likely to help.
  - - - People can lose their sense of individuality, known as deindividuation. This leads us to have less responsibility for our actions.
      - Uniforms can affect deindividuation, where people all look the same and lose theirs sense of their identity. Also, being anonymous means that people no longer feel responsibility.
    - - Social loafing occurs in groups of more than 3. It also can be reduced by making the activity important, or competitive
- - - - Some features in human communication are not present in animal communication.
        
        Displacement: animals are unable to communicate about the past or the future
        
        Productivity: the ability to create an unlimited number of messages. Animals cannot do this, as they can only say certain things
        
        Multiple channels: animals are unable to communicate in multiple channels, for example vocally, sign language, braille
  - - - Eye Contact
        
        Eye contact is used as a conversation flow controller. Eye contact is also used to show attraction, as our pupils dilate when we see someone we like, which could help us find a mate.
        
        Touch
        
        Touch is a form of non-verbal communication. It is a very powerful signal that can produce unconscious reactions
        
        There are very large differences between cultures regarding touch. British and western cultures often are very distant, while Asian cultures can touch more often.
        
        Psychologists studied the effect of touch on attitudes by asking a librarian to briefly touch the hands of students as they returned a book. Even though the students were unaware they were being touched, they had a more positive attitude.
      - Posture
        
        Posture is used by animals to communicate dominance, threat and submission.
        
        It is used in humans for numerous reasons.
        
        An open posture (arms uncrossed and relaxed) can indicate approval and acceptance
        
        Closed posture (crossed arms and making small) can be used to indicate rejection, or feeling threatened.
        
        posture echo is mirroring someone else's posture can give off an unconscious message of friendliness, and people who are more liked demonstrate this.
    - - Personal space is the distance between you and another person at which you feel comfortable.
        
        Status can affect personal space, as people of the same status stand closer to each other, while those high up feel comfortable with anyone.
        
        Culture can also affect personal space, as Arabs stand very close together, compared to English people who stand around 1 meter away.
        
        Finally, age and personality can affect your personal space, as people of the same age stand together, and introverts tend to have a higher personal space.
    - - Darwin believed that Non-Verbal Communication was adapted to help us survive
        
        The first theory is serviceable habits, which are habits that are adapted with a certain purpose in mind.
        
        For example, baring our teeth shows aggression, and can help us look dangerous.
        
        A surprised face (large pupils and open mouth) helps us see more, and breathe more oxygen.
        
        Servicable associated habits are remnants of servicable habits, and they are weaker versions, for example, baring your teeth when you’re angry, but you will not bite the person.
      - Is non verbal communication innate?
- - - - During the 4th week, the neural tube divides into the spinal cord, forebrain and midbrain
      - In the 6th week, the forebrain divides into the cortex, and the thalamus.
      - In the 15th week, the cerebellum forms in the hindbrain, and at 6 months, the brain becomes fully developed
  - - - Nature believes that we are born with everything, and inherit all of our characteristics from all
      - Nurture believes that our traits are shaped by the environment that we live in.
    - - Twin studies are useful, as there is no difference between twins genetically, making it easy to find a cause and effect.
      - We can also use newborn babies, as there will be little effect of nurture, as they are only recently born.
      - Animals, as they are easier to experiment on,
  - - - A growth mindset, which believes that intelligence is unchanging, and cannot be improved.
      - Growth, which believes that intelligence can be improved, and is not fixed
    - - Person praise is when a student believes that their intelligence can be changed.
      - Process praise is when the student is praised for their effort. Process praise helps students believe that their successes and failures are caused by their effort.
      - Self efficacy is the belief in your own ability to succeed in a task.
    - - Visual learners learn through pictures
      - Auditory learners learn through sounds
      - Kinaesthetic learners learn through doing actions
- - - - Visually, or how something looks
      - Acoustically, or how something sounds.
      - Semantically, what something means.
    - - We can store memories episodically, which is a vivid memory of a significant experience.
      - Or Semantically, in the form of a definition or a fact.
      - Or Procedurally, which is the storage of motor code, for example riding a bike.
  - - - Things we already know can affect our future memories, this is known as proactive interference
      - And, new things can change our past memories, known as retroactive interference.
    - - Recall of information can be more effective when we learn and recall in the same environment.
- - - - A mentally healthy person will display these characteristics:
        
        Not being overcome by difficult feelings
        
        Having healthy relationships with others
        
        Being able to deal with disappointments and problems
        
        Cope with stressors of daily life
        
        Be able to make frcisuons
        
        Function and have a positive engagement with society
    - - Culture can affect people’s mental health, which can affect the treatments people receive, and the stigma can prevent people from financial stability and being able to incorporate with society
        
        Mental health problems are getting more common, due to challenges of modern living.
        
        Loneliness and isolation are more common, which can lead to problems like depression and anxiety.
        
        Technology has also impacted the way people socially interact with each other, which can make isolation worse as it replaces social interaction
        
        This can have effects on individuals and society
        
        People with mental health issues find relationships more difficult to maintain. This is as those around them have to take on positions as caretakers, and can increase stress and conflict. These people also find higher rates of alcohol and drug abuse.
        
        15% of the healthcare cost is due to mental health problems. Despite this, people with mental health issues are more dangerous to themselves than they are to
        others
      - For example, in the US anorexia is common, despite having some of the lost food in the world.
- - - - In this stage, children learn about the world around them through their sense and by doing things. The main feature here, is that they develop object permanence 0-2 years
      - The pre-operational stage. Here, children are egocentric, and cannot see things through other's perspectives. 2-7 years
      - Concrete operational stage. 7-11 years, where children develop the ability to conserve.
      - Formal operational stage - Piaget believes that in the formal operational stage, children are able to logically solve problems.
- - - - The multi store memory has 3 stores.
        
        The sensory store
        
        This store codes things modality specific, which means that each sense is stored as it is percieved, such as a smell being remembered as a smell.
        
        It has a very limited capacity
        
        It only lasts less than a second.
        
        Short Term Store
        
        This encodes mainly acoustically.
        
        It can hold around 7 bits of information.
        
        It lasts up to 30 seconds.
        
        and the long term store
        
        This encodes in a mainly semantic way.
        
        It has an unlimited capacity.
        
        It's duration is unlimited.
      - The multi-store memory believes that the method of transfer is rehearsal, so that if we repeat an action, it will be stored forever.
    - - If we rehearse, things do not transfer into our long term memory, for example, when we say something over and over doesn't make us remember it.
      - This is also credited by Murdock's study. The primacy/recency effect he found supports the existence of multiple terms.
  - - - The theory of reconstructive memory suggests that we change our memories to fit in with what we already know.
      - This suggests that memory is an active process with effort after meaning, which means that we make everything match our past memories.
      - As a result of this, we change memories to understand them bettter
    - - This theory is important because it emphasises people's past memories.
      - This means that we can understand that there is some effect of this when giving or listening to eyewitness reports of crimes.
      - This study is credited by Bartlett's war of the ghosts.
- - - - Canoes became boats, paddling became rowing, etc.
- - - - AO1
        
        Caused by an imbalance in Neurotransmitters
        
        Serotonin is used to control biological functions, and a lack of serotonin can cause depression. This causes the lack of sleep
        
        A lower level in serotonin can lower norepinephrine levels. This links in to the lack of energy/
        
        Genetics also play a part. This can mean that people inherit a poor ability to make serotonin
      - AO3
        
        There is supporting evidence - McGuffin found high concordance rates in MZ twins, suggesting strong genetic influence
        
        Evidence is flawed, as it is very difficult to untangle environmental influences.
        
        Alternative explanations, like diathesis stress model suggest 2 factors
    - - AO1
        
        Cognitive explanations attempt to explain depression in terms of negative thoughts that lead to maladaptive behaviour
        
        People with negative schemas can make errors in their thinking, where they think they are worthless, and thing nothing is going to change.
        
        People can have attributions, for example, internal or external, blaming dispositional factors, or situational factors. They can also be stable or unstable, where they blame things on things that cannot change, or factors that are temporary
      - AO3
        
        Seligman's learned helplessness found that dogs no longer tried to escape electric shocks that they couldn't control
        
        Leads to real world applications, for example CBT can be used to treat depression by challenging the faulty thinking.
        
        Despite this, it is oversimplified, as it reduces complex behaviours to thoughts, meaning it is difficult to establish cause and effect
    - - Biological
        
        AO1
        
        We can use SSRIs which block the reuptake sites on the presynaptic knob, meaning more serotonin is available, compensating for lower levels. The prevention of reuptake means that the neuron is stimulated more.
        
        AO3
        
        These drugs have side effects, which include nausea, insomnia, weight gain, etc. This means they may be less effective./
        
        The effectiveness is also questionable, as it usually takes 3-4 months, and also may just be because of the placebo effect.
        
        These drugs are also reductionist, which means that they only believe that the depression is biological
      - Psychological
        
        AO1
        
        CBT involves challenging the negative thoughts.
        
        This means that the patient tests their own thoughts and beliefs
        
        Patients are often encouraged to engage in pleasurable activities, acting as a solution to depression.
        
        AO3
        
        Lots of evidence, where March found that CBT with antidepressants meant that 86% of people saw an improvement.
        
        This means that it is as effective as the medicine, without any side effects
        
        Despite this, it is not suitable for all patients as some cannot motivate themselves to do hard work.
        
        This theory is a reductionist theory, meaning that it only focuses on "the here and now", and does not focus on biological and dispositional factors
    - - Wiles
        
        AO1
        
        Wiles aimed to investigate the effectiveness of CBT in treating people with depression who don't improve after taking medication
        
        234 participants were randomly allocated to have CBT alongside their antidepressants, and a control of 235 continued to take their normal medicine. Participants in CBT group had 12 1:1 1hr sessions.
        
        After 6 months, 46% of the CBT group showed noticeable improvements, compared to 22% in the control group. At 12 months, the CBT group said the quality of their lives improved
        
        Proves CBT is an effective way of reducing symptoms of depression.
        
        AO3
        
        High control over extraneous variables, meaning that cause and effect can be found. This is because participants were randomly allocated to minimise individual differences
        
        Used self report, meaning that people may have succumbed to demand characteristics
        
        Supporting evidence for CBT, as March also found that there was a 81% improvement in teenagers, showing that CBT is as effective as medication/
  - - - AO1
        
        Aims to associate the addiction with something unpleasant, and make them avoid the substance in the future
        
        For example, alcohol and an emetic drug, leads to someone feeling nauseous, eventually reaches the point where alcohol leads to nausea
      - AO3
        
        High attrition rate, as people leave because of unpleasant stimuli
        
        People only seem to be affected by short term, as they return to the poor habits afterwards/
        
        Unethical, leads to harm to user
        
        Reductionist
    - - AO1
        
        12 Step recovery programme
        
        Addicts surrender their control to a higher power
        
        Lifelong process, all members have a book, to call someone if they need help
      - AO3
        
        Lack of evidence, Cochrane review showed no significant difference between AA and other treatments.
        
        Might only help some individuals, as it requires high motivation and ability to help others
        
        Holistic approach
    - - AO1
        
        Aimed to investigate if hereditary factors influence addiction
        
        48 Mz Twins and 126 DZ twins completed questionnares and interviews about alcohol use. They were categorised into 5 categories from no drinking to chronic.
        
        Kaij found that 58% of MZ twins were in the same category, but only 28% of the DZ twins were.
        
        shows that hereditary factors are involvced
      - AO3
        
        Other supporting research *Kendler showes that genetic factors have influence
        
        Does not focus on alcoholism, and the 5 categories may not have been accurate
        
        Survey, demand characteristics possible