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PY-1101(第二周）, 1.Psychodynamic psychology: focus on unconscious processes,…

- - - - Continuous variable: has a continuum of possible values and varies across this range (e.g., reaction time in seconds ranging from 0.5 to 5 sec)连续变量：具有连续的可能值并在此范围内变化（例如，反应时间以秒为单位，范围从 0.5 到 5 秒）
      - Categorical variable: can take on fixed values – and only those fixed values (e.g., make of car, biological gender)分类变量： 可以采用固定值——并且只能采用那些固定值（例如，汽车制造商、生物性别）这些只有固定数量的值——比如死/活、肥胖/超重/正常/体重不足、Apgar 评分
  - - - Internal validity: Are the procedures of the study sound or are they flawed?内部效度：研究程序是健全的还是有缺陷的？
      - External validity: Does the experimental situation resemble the situation found in the real world?外部有效性： 实验情况是否与现实世界中的情况相似？(例如让两组人员参加试验，调查关于咖啡因是否会让人更加兴奋，一组人员不喝咖啡，但另一组人员喝十杯咖啡。）这是不现实的，因为基本没有人一天会喝十杯咖啡。
  - - - Measures of variables must be:
        
        Reliable: Produce consistent measurements over time, or amongst items in a scale of measurement可靠：随着时间的推移或在测量范围内的项目之间产生一致的测量结果
        
        Valid: Actually measure the variable of interest; or is a measure used for the purposes for which it is designed有效：实际测量感兴趣的变量；或者是用于其设计目的的措施
        
        Test bias: are tests biased against different groups of people?测试偏差：测试是否偏向于不同的人群？
        
        Use of cognitive and IQ tests to explain group differences.使用认知和智商测试来解释群体差异
    - - Test-retest reliability: Does the test give similar values if the same participant takes it two or more times?重测信度： 如果同一参与者进行两次或多次测试，测试是否给出相似的值？
      - Internal consistency: Different items that measure the same variable should produce similar answers – be consistent.内部一致性：测量相同变量的不同项目应该产生相似的答案——保持一致。
      - Inter-rater reliability: Two testers who rate the same person on the same variable, should give similar ratings to the participant. 评分者间信度：两名测试者在同一变量上对同一个人进行评分，应给予参与者相似的评分。
  - - - 1.Description
        Concerned with describing behaviour
        Description关注描述行为描述
        
        Descriptive research
        
        The descriptive approach seeks to describe phenomena rather than to manipulate variables.描述性方法旨在描述现象而不是操纵变量。
        
        Methods of descriptive research:
        
        1.Case studies
        
        A case study is an in-depth study of the behaviour of one person or a small group
        案例研究是对一个人或一小群人的行为的深入研究
        
        Often used in clinical research (e.g., Freud)
        Used when large numbers of participants are not available
        常用于临床研究（例如，弗洛伊德）当大量参与者不可用时使用
        
        Drawbacks include弱点
        
        1.Small sample size
        
        2.Susceptibility to researcher bias2.对研究人员偏见的敏感性
        
        3.Problem of an atypical case3.非典型案例问题
        
        2.Naturalistic observation
        
        Naturalistic observation refers to the in-depth study of a phenomenon in its natural setting自然主义观察是指对自然环境中的现象进行深入研究
        
        Study of primate behaviour in the wild.
        Piaget’s study of the cognitive development of his own children野生灵长类动物行为研究。皮亚杰对自己孩子认知发展的研究
        
        Advantage: Good generalisability
        
        Disadvantages:
        Observation per se can alter behaviour.
        Cannot establish the cause of behaviour缺点：观察本身可以改变行为。无法确定行为的原因
        
        3.Survey research
        
        Survey technique asks questions of large numbers of persons to gain information on attitudes and behaviour调查技术向大量人员提问以获得有关态度和行为的信息
        
        Two approaches:
        Questionnaires
        Interviews (face-to-face, telephone) 两种方法： 问卷调查面试（面对面，电话）
        
        Disadvantages of survey approach:
        Sampling issues
        People may not respond accurately
        调查方法的缺点：抽样问题人们可能无法准确回应
      - 2.Prediction
        Correlational Designs，Concerned with predicting behaviour2.预测相关设计，关注预测行为
      - 3.Understanding
        Experimental Designs
        Concerned with establishing the causes of behaviour3.了解 实验设计 关注确定行为的原因
    - - 1.Quantitative research
        Statistical analysis of experiment or survey data to test hypotheses1.定量研究对实验或调查数据进行统计分析以检验假设
      - 2.Qualitative research
        In-depth analysis of interview, observational or case study data to provide a rich and deep understanding of research topic
        体）
        2.定性研究 深入分析访谈、观察或案例研究数据，以提供对研究主题的丰富而深刻的理解
      - 3.Mixed-methods research
        Integration and analysis of both quantitative and qualitative research data in one study3.混合方法研究在一项研究中整合和分析定量和定性研究数据
      - 4.Correlational researchAim of the correlational approach is to determine the degree to which two or more variables are related – they cannot determine causality.
        Correlations can determine association between data from experiments, case studies, or surveys.
        4.相关研究相关方法的目的是确定两个或多个变量的相关程度——它们不能确定因果关系。
        相关性可以确定来自实验、案例研究或调查的数据之间的关联。
        
        Calculate the correlation coefficient (r)
        
        Values range from –1 through 0 through +1
        
        Negative correlations: High values of one variable are associated with low values of the other variable.负相关：一个变量的高值与另一个变量的低值相关。
        
        Positive correlations: High values of one variable are associated with high values of the other variable.正相关：一个变量的高值与另一变量的高值相关。
  - - - Independent variable (IV): Manipulated by experimenter
        Dependent variable (DV):* Participants’ responses
        自变量（IV）：由实验者操作 *
        因变量 (DV)：* 参与者的回答
    - - Complex real-world issues are not easily studied in the laboratory (e.g., prejudice)复杂的现实世界问题在实验室中不容易研究（例如，偏见）
        
        In many situations, the IV cannot be manipulated (e.g., cannot require participants to divorce, to study its effects on children).在许多情况下，IV 不能被操纵（例如，不能要求参与者离婚，以研究其对儿童的影响）。
        
        Therefore, need to study groups that already exist via quasi-experimental designs.因此，需要通过准实验设计研究已经存在的群体。
        
        Quasi-experimental designs are most common in psychology.准实验设计在心理学中最为常见
      - The internet is having a major impact on research in psychology
        
        Negative:
        1.Validity of information
        2.Sampling issues
        3.Ethical considerations
        消极的： 1.信息的有效性 2.抽样问题 3.道德考量
        
        Positive:
        1.Online sources and easy/quick access to information
        2.Wider recruitment at fraction of cost
        积极的： 1.在线资源和轻松/快速访问信息 2. 以极低的成本进行更广泛的招聘
- - - - Classical conditioning
        经典条件反射
        
        Classical conditioning refers to learning that occurs when a neutral stimulus (e.g., a tone) becomes associated with a stimulus (e.g., food) that naturally produces a behaviour. After the association is learned, the previously neutral stimulus is sufficient to produce the behaviour.
        经典条件反射是指当中性刺激（例如，音调）与自然产生行为的刺激（例如，食物）相关联时发生的学习。学会关联后，先前的中性刺激足以产生行为。
      - Operant conditioning操作性条件反射
        
        Operant conditioning (also known as instrumental conditioning) is a process by which humans and animals learn to behave in such a way as to obtain rewards and avoid punishments. It is also the name for the paradigm in experimental psychology by which such learning and action selection processes are studied.
        操作性条件反射（也称为工具条件反射）是人类和动物学习行为以获得奖励和避免惩罚的过程。它也是研究这种学习和行动选择过程的实验心理学范式的名称。
  - - - The metaphor for the evolutionary perspective is that ‘we are all runners in a race, competing for resources…’进化论观点的隐喻是“我们都是赛跑者，争夺资源……”
      - Gather information through deductive methods with more recent use of experimentation.通过最近使用实验的演绎方法收集信息
      - Often start with a known behaviour in a species and attempt to explain it on the basis of evolutionary principles.通常从一个物种的已知行为开始，并试图根据进化原理对其进行解释。
    - - Natural selection operates on psychological functions and social behaviour as well as physical functions.自然选择作用于心理功能和社会行为以及身体功能。
      - Reproductive success refers to capacity to survive and produce offspring繁殖成功是指生存和产生后代的能力