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LINGUISTIC ANALYSIS FOR KOREAN AND ENGLISH, AND THE IMPLICATIONS FOR MT…

- - - - Vowels
        
        Korean has some simple vowels not available in English, English has many more vowels that are not available in Korean (p.p 234)
        
        Error Analysis
        
        Korean students reportedly struggle in both comprehension and production with the distinction between sentences that contains /a/ vs. /ɑ/, /i/ vs. /ɪ/ and /u/ vs. /ʊ/ -> Korean has only one high front unrounded vowel. (p.p 235)
      - Consonants (Junmo Cho, p.p 237)
        
        Korean
        
        For most obstruents, instead of the voicing contrast, there are other contrasts at phonemic level, namely, aspiration contrast and glottis constriction contrast.
        
        Korean has a flap [ɾ], but no [l] or [ɹ].
        
        Korean does not have voiced obstruents. All stops, fricatives and affricates are voiceless. They do not have voiced consonants, at least in the phonemic level.
        
        The number of fricatives is significantly small.
        
        English
    - - Korean
        
        Maximal syllable structure in Korean: CVC(C)
        
        Korean does not allow fricatives in coda position. As a result, the final fricatives and affricates in words such as [Steve]. [has], [garage] cause difficulty for Koreans. These fricatives are either replaced by stops and/or followed with an inserted default vowel to make it non0final in a syllable.
      - English
        
        Maximal syllable structure in English: CCCVCCC
        
        English freely permits fricatives in coda position.
        
        English allows certain consonant + vowel combinations which Korean does not. [j] before [i] in 'yeast,' 'year,' 'yield' -> Koreans often fail to distinguish the contrasts such as 'yeast' vs. 'east', and 'year' vs. 'ear.'
    - - Korean
        
        Korean has a regressive assimilation where stops become nasals of the same places of articulation in assimilation to the following sonorants. "kapnita" -> "kamnita"
        Thus more likely to make errors where the underlined 't' and 'p' in English also tunr to pn] and [m] under the influence of [m], [l] or [j] (p.p 240)
        
        Since English allows more consonants in both onset and coda positions than Korean does, Korean speakers utilize epenthesis processes to break up consonant clusters whereby they incorrectly insert the default vowel to maintain their native syllable structure intact. ㅡ 발음
        
        Korean palatalization: s,t,th -> ʃ,tʃ,tʃh.. ->Koreans who do not have a problem with the sound [s] generally pronounce English [s] as [ʃ] when it precedes [ɪ]
        
        Coda neutralization: Koreans have much greater difficulty with fricatives and affricates of English in coda psoition than in onset position. Koreans tend to replace fricatives and affricates with stops and/or adda default vowel to make them onsets. (p.p 243)
    - - instructors should help students identify their mistakes. It is important for instructors to be more aware of their students' pronunciation needs in order to give a range of techniques. (p.p 243)
      - "Instructors should help students understand why such idiosyncratic pronunciation mistakes are made. Presentation of the comparative analysis of phonology and phonetics between Korean and English can be particularly beneficial to students..." (p.p 244)
      - "Instructors should develop a syllabus integrating pronunciation objectives into the overall syllabus and choose commercially made textbooks or make their own materials that will suit the students' needs." (p.p 244)
      - "Instructors should help students drill in class through various techniques: 1) Listen and imitate/repeat 2)tongue-twisters; 3) minimal pair exercises such as lice-rice; 4)developmental approximation drill such as /w/ ->/ɹ/ 5)drilling the vowel and stress shifts.
- - - - "신창악은 우리 민족적 어법에 뿌리를 둔 판소리의 멋을 그대로 창출시킨 음악으로 자연적이고 부담없이 한국적인 맛을 느끼게 한다. 창악의 연구는 성악발성 (특히 우리 말로 우리 노래를 부르는)에 무궁무진한 소재를 제공할 것이고 백과사전이 될 것이다. Shin-ch'ang-ak is a type of music that is based on the uniqueness of Korean language, that is empowered to show the most 'Koreanness' by the music of p'ansori, and that tastes the natural beauty of Korean music. The study of shin-ch'ang-ak should light up other ways of singing Korean songs and will be the most important guide to the Korean vocal pedagogy... Therefore, shin-ch'ang-ak holds its significance as a first step of developing a very unique Korean vocal music. (Lim, p.p 61-62)
    - - "The harshness is the most distinctive characteristic in p'ansori performance. It is what makes p'ansori performance unique from other traditional Korean vocal genres. Traditional Korean music offers different styles and characteristics for different elements of the social hierarchy. P'ansori is for lower class, and the characteristics of p'ansori reflect those of the common people: simple, emotional, and direct." (Jumi Kim, p.p 42)
    - - "The word cho, which appears in the names of such p'ansori singing modes as p'yong cho [sic], u cho, and kyemyon cho [sic], in corporates the sense of the Western musical concepts of mode and scale, in addition to the aesthetic effect of key. Each cho, moreover, is attributed to certain impressionistic qualities which rise from the singer's vocal techniques and state presence. The cho, therefore, is an arrangement of selected musical notes, usually five, which are used to create melodies. These selections and arrangement of these notes is said to impart characteristics to the melodies that are based on them, and, therefore, suggest affective distinctions among cho, as expressed in such impressionistic terms as "brave," "harmonious," or "poignant,"... The keymyon, mode... is said to evoke soft and sad feelings in the listener and, therefore, is commonly used to express melancholy and lament." (Heather A. Willoughby, "The Sound of Han: P'ansori, Timbre, and a South Korean Discourse of Soor and Lament", p.p 91-92)