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cognitive Psychology, Evidence “Motion Centre” in the Primate Brain, 6…

- - - - proposed the idea of primary memory and secondary memory.
        
        Primary memory acts to hold information for a short period while it is being used.
        
        Secondary memory can hold information for a long time.
      - carried out an experiment to quantify the capacity of primary memory and determine whether it is affected by decay or interference.
      - forgetting varied with the number of digits presented between the probe and the end of the list, but not with the time between the probe and the end of the list. Waugh and Norman (1965) concluded that forgetting is due to interference, not decay.
    - - the sensory store,
        
        the short-term store
        
        and the long-term store.
        
        Memory is permanent with no limitation. All learned exp are kept here
        
        information received from the Sensory Store. It is given meaning ( ENCODED) and stored for a few seconds (simple digits or complex words)
        CHUNKING is used to increase ability to remember. Chunking involves rearranging items into smaller chunks
        
        information in the environment enters our Information Processing system through our senses (eyes ears) information is registered in sensory memory as SENSORIAL IMAGE
        
        2 Types of Sensory Memory
        
        Iconic Memory
        
        Echoic Memory
        
        Information stays for a very shorty time. if not transferred to another store, it will be lost
  - - - (i) Central Executive
        
        main component with limited capacity and used when needed.
        This component is similar to attention.
        For example, when we focus on a word while reading a text.
        
        also responsible for control and decisions.
        reasoning, language comprehension, transferring information and directing attention.
      - (ii) Articulatory Loop
        
        This component stores information in its phonological form. For example, the sound of a word while reading the word aloud.
        
        recycles items via articulatory processes. It stores phonological memory.
      - (iii) Visuo-spatial Scratch Pad (or Sketch-pad)
        
        It is specific for coding visual and spatial information. For example, recognising visually a word in a text.
        
        The visuo-spatial scratch pad creates visual imagery as well as stores visual spatial memory.
  - - - Declarative memory is a memory of facts
      - Procedural memory refers to memory of sequence of actions. Procedural memory is an example of non-declarative memory.
    - - Episodic memory is usually a personal memory such as remembering what happened on one’s 16th birthday party.
      - Semantic memory is a memory about facts.
- - - - The retina in the eye is a sensory receptor that converts the light energy into neural impulses.
      - The neural impulses are sent to the brain via the optic nerve.
      - What is happening involves the eye, which is a sensory organ that absorbs light energy from a physical stimulus in the environment.
    - - In the brain, the neural impulses are transmitted along the neurons.
      - Our brain organises the visual information and translates it into something meaningful for us to perceive and see.
    - - It is a visual stimulus. This stimulus reaches the receptors in the retina of the eye. This is done by a process where images are focused on the retina. It is called accommodation. What happens here?
      - Three important processes occur -
        
        ReCeption
        
        the absorption of light energy by the sight receptors located at the retina.
        
        Transduction
        
        the physical energy of the light rays is converted into electrochemical energy in the neurons. The electrochemical energy consists of neural impulses.
        
        Coding
        
        coding, which involves a direct one-to-one correspondence between the physical stimuli, or the images that map onto the impulses
      - Moving to cortex. The main route from the eye to the cortex is called the retina-geniculate-striate pathway.
        
        Each eye has an optic nerve linking to the cortex. But the right and left optic nerves meet at the optic chiasm. two axons (i.e. nerve connectors consisting of neurons) coming out from the retina in each eye.
        
        In each eye, there are two main axons. One axon is from the outer half and another from the inner half of the retina. The axon from the outer half of each retina moves on to the hemisphere of the same side. So, the outer axon of the right eye enters the right hemisphere of the brain. The outer axon of the left eye enters the left hemisphere of the brain.
        Where does the axon from the inner half of each retina go? The inner half axon of the right retina crosses over the inner half axon of the left eye. The point where they cross over each other is the optic chiasm.
        
        So, from the optic chiasm, there are only two optic tracts within the brain.
        
        Signals in the form of impulses travel on these two optic tracts.
        
        The left optic tract is from the inner halves axons. Therefore, it carries signals from the inner half of each eye. Conversely, the right optic tract is from the outer halvesÊ axons. Therefore, it carries signals from the outer half of each eye.
        
        Both the right and left optic tracts proceed to the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN).
  - - - The retina-geniculate-striate pathway transmits impulses from the retina to the primary visual cortex or striate cortex.
      - The transmission is done via the lateral geniculate nucleus (LGN), which is part of the brain thalamus.
      - Finally, nerve impulses (i.e. signals) reach the primary visual cortex within the occipital lobe of the brain.
      - Then, the impulses are spread to nearby secondary visual cortical areas.
      - There are two independent pathways within the retina-geniculate-striate system. They are the parvocellular or P-pathway and the magnocellular or M-pathway.
  - - - V1 and V2
        
        Early stage of visual perception.
        Responsive to “colour” and “form”
        Signals from nerve impulses are assembled here.
      - V3
        
        ∙ Responsive to “form”.
        ∙ Responds specifically to "shapes" - moving objects.
        ∙ Does NOT respond to colour.
      - V4
        
        ∙ Responsive to "colour" and "line" orientation or relative positions of lines.
        
        V4 specialises in colour processing. So, if the V4 of a person is damaged, there is no colour perception but only form and motion perceptions. A person who cannot see colours is suffering from cerebral achromatopsia.
      - V5
        
        Responsive to "motion".
        Does NOT respond to "colour".
        
        specialised for “motion” processing is the V5 (also known as middle temporal or MT).
        
        If the V5 is damaged; a person who is suffering from akinetopsia is unable to detect moving objects
      - Parietal
        
        Responsive to movement.
        Identifying "where" or position of objects we see.
      - Inferotemporal
        
        Responsive to "colour" and "form"
        Identifying "what" we see.
        
        Any person experiencing damage specifically at the inferotemporal cortex, or even areas V1, V2 and V3, is unable to identify “forms” such as “shapes” of objects or “facial expression”, in the case of the person seeing another person.
        
        If the damage is at parts of V1, V2, or V3 that are not concerned with “form”, then the person can still see “form”, or at least some. This would not be the case if the damage is at the inferotemporal cortex.
        
        “form” processing.- the most important is the inferotemporal cortex, where the final visual processing is done.
- - - - Hue
        
        ability to distinguish a colour from other colours. For example, distinguishing red from yellow or blue.
      - Brightness
        
        the perceived intensity or amount of light rays.
      - Saturation
        
        allows us to see whether a colour is vivid or pale.
  - - - chromatic adaptation, where light sensitivity of colours decreases with respect to time. Now, assuming you are outside your house at night. The surrounding is dark. Suddenly, you see yellowness from an artificial light in a neighbouring house. On the other hand, if you are in your house which is illuminated by artificial light for quite some time, you will not see the yellowness. When we adapt to a certain light after seeing it for some time, our sensitivity to that light decreases, so we are not really aware of it anymore.
      - familiarity. Everyone is used to seeing trees with green leaves. So the leaves still appear green whether they are illuminated by the sun or artificial lighting such as street light.
      - local contrast. Local contrast involves comparison of cone responses from target surface (the object we are seeing) with those from the immediate background. When there is contrast, colour constancy is maintained
      - global contrast. In this case, there is a comparison of cone responses from the target surface with cone responses on the whole view that we are seeing, that is, the whole visual scene in front of us.
- - - - The introspection method introduced by him had a few weaknesses, triggering opposition from many psychologists, especially those in North America.
    - - Watson's goal was to study only behaviour that is directly observable (overt), not hidden mental events.
    - - The intermediate variable tried to take into account learning, memory, perception, thought and other related mental processes.
    - - first experimental researcher to provide evidence that functional characteristics of mental processes can be quantified.
    - - he built an intelligence test based on the assumption that human intelligence can be determined through a basic identification process, such as the degree of sensory acuity or the reaction time needed to notice the presence of a certain stimulus.
- - - - competence
      - performance.
      - According to Chomsky, the objective of studies by linguists is to find and state the rules that underlie speech and listenerÊs comprehension.
        
        language competency theory is known as grammar, that is, a description of rules that are known by the speaker in a certain language
- - - - a listener determines word meaning by comparing a sequence of word sound with a list of words in the lexicon until a match is found.
      - This model assumes that words in mental lexicon are listed by usage repetition, not according to alphabetical order or other order
        
        Such arrangement allows a listener to determine the meaning of frequent words easier than less frequent words.
    - - assumes that the lexicon has a unique detector for each word.
        
        Such a model is known as direct access because the presence of a word's features immediately activates detectors without involving any serial exploration
      - When the level of a detector’s activation is more than the set threshold, a series of phonemes is recognised as a word.
      - Direct access theory assumes that a detector activation threshold is lower for frequent words than less frequent words
        
        Similar to the exploration model, frequent words are easier to access because their word detectors are more sensitive than those of less frequent words.
- - - - A problem space may have a ready solution as well as other ways to a solution.
- - - - requires arranging objects so as to satisfy certain criteria.
        
        The skills that are needed to solve an arrangement problem are:
        
        (a) Fluency to generate possibilities. Fluency is necessary to form parts of the solution and remove those that are not successful.
        
        (b) Retrieval of solution patterns. The ability to recall words from memory to solve the anagram.
        
        (c) Knowledge of principles that limit the search. Knowing the frequency of letters that appear together should guide the solver to search for the solution.
    - - the relationship between objects is fixed and the problem is to find the relationship. Objects are given and the task is to know how they are related.
    - - consists of a current state, goal state and sequence of operation.
      - The aim of a transformation problem is to change a current state into a goal state.
      - Unlike an inducing structure problem or an arrangement problem, a transformation problem starts from a goal state
- - - - DECLARATIVE KNOWLEDGE
        
        These include mental images, cognitive maps, semantic networks, concepts and propositions, schema, scripts and frames.
        
        Epistemoligists assume that declarative knowledge represents things that are known that will then allow people to judge the validity of a statement.
        
        Declarative knowledge represents a concept, describes a common event and forms a mental image of an object explicitly.
        Declarative knowledge is when a bird is defined as an animal that can fly,
      - PROCEDURAL KNOWLEDGE
        
        defined as the means by which people carry out tasks, including his or her cognitive skills, such as text comprehension, problem solving and carrying out a statistical analysis
        
        Procedural knowledge that is acquired and automatic through practice is commonly represented through output rule that involves a set of situations and a set of actions.
  - - - (a) Mental Rotation
      - (b) Image Scaling
      - (c) Image Scanning
      - (d) Cognitive Maps
        
        Spatial representation is important because it determines the ability to code knowledge about the organisation of oneÊs environment. Cognitive maps are mental representations that enable people to find their way in mental space.
        
        cognitive maps are mental images that allow people to mentally collect, arrange, store, retrieve and manipulate information about the environment
        
        A cognitive map may picture the environment in detail and be as accurate as the real environment, or it may just be a sketch of a real situation or location that is not so accurate
      - (e) Mental Shortcuts
- - - - Perceptual attributes are important for natural categories such as Animal , Nature and Sound
        For example, Trees and Plants category share certain attributes that we can infer as flora.
      - Functional attributes are functions or outcomes/parts of outcomes that do something in a specific category. Tools, for example, are objects that serve as a component in the construction of other objects.
      - A category can also be determined by a relationship, which is a set of properties that are dependent on the relationship between one item and another. For example : Family terms like mother, father, uncle and cousin are categories that are determined by relationship attributes.
- - - - (a) The law of proximity;
        
        visual elements are grouped together in closeness, that is, they are seen as a whole when they are aligned close to each other.
      - (b) The law of similarity;
        
        we perceive and group similar elements together.
      - (c) The law of good continuation
        
        objects that are arranged in a straight line or smooth curve are perceived together as a unit.
        
        Outlines
      - (d) The law of closure.
        
        items are grouped together if there is a tendency for them to complete a particular pattern
      - e) The Law of Common Fate
        
        objects are seen as a unit if they move in the same direction.
- - - - ability of our sensory receptors to actively select stimuli. So, we are able to hear or see the selected stimulus input while omitting others.
    - - to extract more information from the attended stimuli. Therefore, information from unattended stimuli is suppressed. This allows us to hear or see clearly the stimulus input.
    - - is a mechanism in attention which allows us to pick up the stimulus input that we want to hear or see respectively.
  - - - Firstly, unattended messages are not always rejected at the beginning of processing.
      - Secondly, two dissimilar messages, one in sentence while the other in words, can both be processed fully, though the memory for word is lower.
      - Thirdly, the meaning of unattended messages may be processed although the participant has no conscious awareness of hearing them.
  - - - Treisman's Attenuation Model
        Attenuation is like turning down the volume so that if you have 4 sources of sound in one room (TV, radio, people talking, baby crying) you can turn down or attenuate 3 in order to attend to the fourth. This means that people can still process the meaning of the attended message(s).
    - - Each word has a threshold for detection. Words which are familiar have a lower threshold. Therefore, they are easily detected, such as the listener’s own name.
      - words that are consistent with current expectations are easily detected because they have a lower threshold.
    - - Words that are less important or uncommon to the listener have a higher threshold. Therefore, they are harder to be detected.
    - - Broadbent's, Treisman's, and Deusch and Deusch's theories also propose the presence of a “bottleneck” in the pathway of message transmission from sensory input to the cortices. The difference is the location of the “bottleneck”.
      - Broadbent argues that the “bottleneck” occurs at an early stage in the transmission system;
      - Treisman argues that it is in the mid-way;
      - Deusch and Deusch argue that it is at the end.
      - Lavie suggested the perceptual load theory which resolved the debate on early versus mid-way and late selection
  - - - Firstly, human attentional capacity is limited.
      - Secondly, attentional capacity is determined by the number of display units and the respective nature of processing.
      - Thirdly, irrelevant stimuli are beyond the attentional capacity.
    - - there is an exhaustion of perceptual capacity in processing incoming message stimuli. Here, the perceptual selection mechanism reduces distracter perception, so that the stimuli are attended to.
    - - the cognitive control mechanism reduces interference due to perceived distracters.
- - - - goal-directed or endogenous system
        
        Voluntary
        
        Involves top-down processing in selecting sensory stimuli and responses
        
        located at the intraparietal cortex and superior frontal cortex. The endogenous, voluntary function of selection is modulated by the detection of sensory stimuli.
      - stimulus-driven or exogenous system
        
        Involuntary
        
        involves bottom-up processing in detecting salient or conspicuous unattended visual stimuli such as behavioural relevant stimuli
        
        located at the temporoparietal cortex and inferior frontal cortex, largely lateralised to the right hemisphere of our brain. The exogenous, involuntary function of detection works as a "circuit breaker" that directs attention to salient events.
- - - - V3
        
        V4
        
        Inferotemporal Cortex "what" pathway
        
        inferotemporal cortex (“what” pathway) is necessary for “colour” and “form” processing. So, that is how we know “what” we see. This is because “colour” makes an object distinct from other objects beside it; whereas the role of "form" is to show the “shape” of the object.
        
        MT V5
        
        Parital "Where" Pathway
        
        (“Where” pathway) is for “movement” processing. This is how we know “where” the object we see is, or at least “where” we are when seeing objects in our surrounding.
        
        Evidence for a Motion Processing Area Surrounding V5
        
        Neuroimaging
        
        Biological motion activated superior temporal sulcus
        
        Tool use activated middle temporal gyrus and inferior temporal sulcus
        
        Neuropsychology
        
        Damage to visual area V5 results in akinetopsia
        
        Physiology (single cell recording)
        
        Complex motion involving contraction/expansion and rotation found to activate neurons in medial superior temporal area (MST)