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Physics Paper One, Liquids, - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Take a block of material with two holes (One for heater, one for thermometer) and warp it in insulation (leaving the holes open)
        
        Place the thermometer in one hole, and the immersion heater in the other
        
        Record the ambient starting temperature
        
        Turn on the heater
        
        Start the timer and record the temperature shown by the thermometer every minute (or two minutes)
        
        Use the mass, energy transfer shown on the joulemeter and change in temperature to work out the specific heat capacity of the block
        
        3 more items...
- - - - The Least Dense state
      - The State with the greatest Volume
      - Particles move rapidly & randomly, with different speeds & directions
      - Particles are widely spread without a pattern
    - - Denser than gases, less dense than solids
      - Greater volume than solids, Less volume than gases
      - Particles are in Constant Motion
      - Particles move Relative to one another
      - Particles are Closely packed together
    - - The Most Dense State
      - The State with the lowest volume
        
        There are exceptions to this. For example, Ice is less dense than water, and floats
      - Particles are in a uniform arrangement
      - Particles Vibrate in Fixed Positions
    - - When a state change occurs, Mass is conserved
      - State changes are Reversible
        Physical Changes
      - Latent Heat
        
        Equation for Latent Heat: E=mc
        Energy = Mass x Latent Heat
        Joules = kilograms x Joules per kilogram
        
        The Latent Heat of an object is the amount of energy required to change an object's state of matter without affecting its temperature
        
        An object's Latent Heat of Fusion is the amount of energy required to change it from a solid to a liquid & vice versa
        
        An object's Latent Heat of Fusion is the amount of energy required to change it from a solid to a liquid & vice versa
  - - - The Internal energy of a system is the energy stored by the particles, atoms & molecules of the objects in that system
      - Equation for Internal Energy:
        Internal Energy = Kinetic Energy + Potential Energy
      - Heating an object raises its internal energy
        
        When an object's internal energy is changed, its temperature either rises or it changes state
  - - - Weigh the Object's mass
      - Place the irregular object in a container filled to the capacity with water
        
        The volume of the displaced water is equal to the volume of the irregular object
        
        Use the calculation for density to work out the density of the object
  - - - The phenomena of gas particles moving randomly is known as Brownian Motion
      - When gases are heated, their particles move faster
        
        This means they collide with the walls of their container more often with a greater force
        
        This either causes the container to expand, or the pressure on its walls to increase
- - - - Nucleus: Contains particles called Protons & Neutrons (Both of which are called Nucleons)
        
        Neutrons
        
        Zero Charge
        
        A Relative Mass of One
        
        Protons
        
        A Relative Mass of One
        
        A Charge of +1
        
        99% of an atom's mass is in the nucleus
      - Orbitals: Orbitals are levels of energy surrounding the nucleus, and they house orbiting electrons
        
        Electrons
        
        A Charge of -1
        
        An Electron's mass is negligible
        
        Electrons are able to absorb electromagnetic radiation and rise to a higher energy level. They can also emit that radiation and fall to a lower energy level
        
        The Diameter of an Atom is 2x10⁻¹³m
        
        The radius of the nucleus is 0.0001% the size of the atom's radius
        
        Orbitals closer to the nucleus can only hold a certain number of electrons, and the number an orbital can hold increases as it get further away:
        First Orbital: 2 Electrons
        Second Orbital: 8 Electrons
        Third Orbital: 8 Electrons
      - The number of protons in an atom is equal to the number of electrons
        
        Therefore, atoms has no overall charge
      - Atoms of the same element have the same number of protons (Their Atomic Number)
      - In a standard Atom, the number of protons in the nucleus is equal to the number of neutrons
        
        The total number of Nucleons in an atom is its Mass number
    - - Example:
        Lithium 6: Has 3 protons & 3 neutrons
        Lithium 7: Has 3 protons & 4 neutrons
    - - An Ion that has lost electrons becomes Positively Charged
      - An Ion that has gained electrons becomes Negatively charged
      - Atoms become ions in order to gain a full outer shell
  - - - The Rate at which this happens is called (Radioactive) Activity, and is measured in Becquerels
      - The Count rate of a radioactive material is the number of decays that occurs per second, and can be measured with a Geiger-Muller Tube
      - Alpha Decay: An unstable nucleus dispels an alpha particle to stabilise
        
        Mass number decreases by 4
        
        Atomic number decreases by 2
        
        Forms a new element
        
        Has the lowest penetration power (6-8cm)
        
        Stopped by a few sheets of paper
        
        Is the most ionising radiation
        
        Alpha particles can draw electrons from other atoms
        
        In Living cells, this can damage DNA & lead to caner
      - Beta Decay: An Unstable atom splits a neutron into a proton & an electron, and the resulting electron is dispelled to stabilise
        
        Atomic Number increases by 1
        
        Forms a new element
        
        Has a moderate level of penetration power
        (1-2m)
        
        Can pierce paper but is stopped by a thin aluminium sheet
        
        Has a moderate level of ionising power
      - Gamma Decay (: An Unstable atom dispels electromagnetic radiation
        
        Is the least ionising radiation
        
        No mass or charge change
        
        Has the highest penetration power (300-500m)
        
        Only stopped by a thick lead slab or several metres of concrete
      - Neutron Decay: An Unstable atom decays and expels a neutron to stabilise
      - It cannot be predicted which or when specific nuclei will decay. However, it can be predicted when half of a radioactive sample has decayed.
        
        Half-Lives: A Half-life is the time taken for the unstable nuclei in a radioactive isotope to half
      - Radioactive Contamination & Irriadation
        
        Radioactive Contamination: Contamination is when something contains or is in direct physical contact with something radioactive
        
        Objects remain contaminated until the source of contamination is removed or it decays naturally
        
        Radioactive Irradiation: Irradiation is when something is only exposed to the radioactive emissions of a radioactive substance. This does not mean an irradiated object is radioactive itself
  - - - 1808: John Dalton
        
        Atomic Theory: Different elements bond to form compounds
        
        1869: Dimitri Mendeleez
        
        Designed the first periodic table
        
        Arranged in increasing atomic mass
        
        Left gaps for undiscovered elements
        
        1897: J.J. Thomson
        
        Discovered the Electron (Proved atoms are divisible)
        
        Created the Plum Pudding Model
        
        The Plum Pudding Model:
        The Plum Pudding model theorised atoms consisted of a ball of positive charge containing embedded electrons of negative charge
        
        1911: Ernest Rutherford:
        
        Tested the Plum Pudding Model
        
        Discovered the Atom's Nucleus (Dense core of positively-charged mass)
        
        Most of the Atom is empty space
        
        Rutherford's alpha scattering experiment
        Rutherford fired alpha particles at a thin sheet of gold foil.
        
        Most of them passed through the empty space
        
        However, some rebounded when they collided with the nucleus (Alike charges repel)
        
        Alpha Particle: A Particle consisting of two protons & two neutrons (A Helium Nucleus)
        
        1913: Niels Bohr
        
        Suggested electrons orbit the nucleus
        
        1932: James Chadwick
        
        Discovered the neutron
        
        The Atom's mass was double that of what it should have been, were it composed solely of protons
        
        Rutherford-Bohr Model
        The Rutherford-Bohr Model combined the findings of Rutherford & Bohr to produce a diagram with a positively-charged nucleus orbited by negatively-charged electrons
- - - - Biomass energy
      - Water-based
        
        Hydroelectric Power [HEP]
        
        Tidal Energy
        
        Wave energy: The energy from waves rotates a turbine
        
        Doesn't produce much energy
      - Unreliable
        
        Solar Energy
        
        Wind energy
      - Geothermal energy: Cool water is pumped underground in volcanic areas, and the resulting steam is used to rotate a turbine
    - - Fossil Fuels: Mined resources that are burned to generate electricity
        
        Coal
        
        Releases greenhouse gases (CO2 & CH4)
        
        Contributes to climate change
        
        Oil
        
        Natural Gas
      - Nuclear Energy
  - - - Kinetic Store: The energy of a moving object (Accelerating, decelerating etc.)
        
        Equation for Kinetic energy: Eₖ=½mv²
        Kinetic Energy = 0.5 x Mass x Velocity x Velocity
        Joules = 0.5 x kilograms x metres/second x metres/second
      - Chemical Store: The energy of reacting chemicals (Fuels, batteries etc.)
      - Gravitational Potential Store: The energy stored by an object with mass at an altitude within a gravitational field
        
        Equation for Gravitational Potential energy: U=mgh
        Gravitational Potential Energy = Mass x Height x Gravitational Field Strength
        Joules = kilograms x metres x newtons per kilogram
        
        Gravitational Field strength on Earth is
        9.81 N/kg
      - Magnetic & Electrostatic Stores: The energy when magnetic or electrical fields overlap
      - Nuclear Store: The energy when the nuclei of atoms join or separate (Nuclear plants, stars)
      - Elastic Potential Store: The energy of an object that is being elastically deformed (Compressed, squeezed, stretched etc.)
        
        Equation for Elastic Potential Energy: Eₑ=½ke²
        Elastic Potential Energy = 0.5 x Spring Constant x Extension x Extension
        Joules = 0.5 x Newtons per metre x metres x metres
      - Thermal Store: The energy of something that has a temperature (Warm, hot & cold) [AKA not at absolute zero]
        
        Equation for change in energy during a temperature change: △E=mc△θ
        Change in Energy = Mass x Specific heat capacity x change in temperature
        Joules = kilograms x joules per kilogram per degree centigrade x degrees centigrade
        
        Specific heat capacity: The energy required to raise the temperature of one kilogram of a substance by one degree centigrade
    - - Heat Transfer
      - Mechanical Transfer (Forces)
      - Electrical Transfer
      - Radiation Transfer
    - - Work Done = Potential difference x Charge
        Joules = Volts x Coulombs
      - Work Done = Force x Distance
        Joules = Newtons x Metres
      - Work Done = Spring Constant x Extension
        Joules = Newtons per metre x metres
    - - In a Closed Energy System neither mass nor energy can escape, so their total values always remain the same
    - - Power is measured in Watts. A single Watt is equivalent to one Joule per second of transferred energy
      - Equations for calculating Power:
        Power = Energy / Time
        *Watts = Joules / Seconds)
        Power = Potential Difference x Resistance
        Watts = Volts x Ohms
  - - - Energy Efficiency is a term used to describe how much energy an appliance uses usefully compared to how much it wastes
        
        Equations of Energy Efficiency:
        Efficiency = (Useful Energy output / Total Energy Input) x 100
        Percentage = (Joules / Joules) x 100
        Efficiency = (Useful Power Output / Total power Input) x 100
        Percentage = (Watts / Watts) x 100
      - Reducing Wasted Energy
        
        Materials with a high thermal conductivity (Such as bricks, wood, concrete & glass in housing) loses thermal energy very quickly, as they transfer energy at a higher rate
        
        Materials with a low thermal conductivity lose thermal energy very slowly, as they transfer energy at a slower rate. These materials are called insulators
        
        Lubrication (Reduces friction)
        
        Double-Glazed Windows (Windows have an insulating layer of air between panes, reducing heat loss)
        
        Foam-Filled Wall Cavities (Cavities in the wall filled with foam form an insulating barrier)
        
        Fibreglass in lofts (Thermally insulates roofing)
- - - - Resistor (Ohmic)
      - Variable Resistor
      - Light Dependent Resistor (LDR)
      - Thermistor
    - - Switch: Opens and closes the circuit
      - Cell: Acts as a source of Voltage
      - Battery: Is multiple cells adjacent to one another to provide a greater voltage
    - - Light-Emitting Diode (LED): Similar to the diode, except it emits light
      - Diode: Only allows current to flow through it in one direction
    - - Ammeter: Measures the current in a circuit. Placed in Series
      - Voltmeter: Measures the potential difference in a circuit, before and after a component. Placed in Parallel