Please enable JavaScript.

Coggle requires JavaScript to display documents.

1 Child Psy, 5 General Perspectives in Child Psy, Genotype, 4 Infancy:…

- - - - Sigmund Freud
    - - John Locker
    - - Jean Jaques Rousseau
- - - - The behavioural and social cognitive theories especially advocate the use of laboratory observation
    - - ethological theory emphasises the importance of naturalistic observation
- - - - (i) Freud’s Psychoanalytic Theory
        
        children move through a series of stages in which they are confronted with conflicts between their biological needs and social expectations. How these conflicts are resolved will determine the child’s ability to learn, cope with anxiety and get along with others. In this theory, a child;s personal development is controlled by three interconnected parts: id, ego and superego.
        
        Freud’s psychosexual theory emphasises that the way parents manage their childÊs sexual and aggressive drives in the first few years of life is crucial for healthy personality development and socialisation, especially in the areas of gender, morality, family processes and problems and disturbances
      - (ii) Erikson’s Psychosocial Theory
        
        Erikson emphasised that the ego does not just mediate between id impulses and superego demands – it is also a positive force in development.
        
        He proposed eight specific developmental stages that unfold across the lifespan. Each stage is characterised according to the personal and social tasks that the individual must achieve as well as the threats the individual confronts if she or he fails to proceed through the stages successfully.
        
        Erikson’s Developmental Theory
        
        Each stage is regarded as a psychosocial crisis that arises and demands resolution before the next stage can be satisfactorily negotiated.
        
        Birth–1 year
        
        Basic trust vs mistrust
        
        1 more item...
        
        1–3 years
        
        Autonomy vs shame and
        doubt
        
        1 more item...
        
        3–6 years
        
        Initiative vs guilt
        
        1 more item...
        
        6–11 years
        
        Industry vs
        inferiority
        
        1 more item...
        
        Adolescence
        
        Indentity VS Indentity Confusion
        
        1 more item...
        
        Emerging
        adulthood
        
        Intimacy vs
        isolation
        
        1 more item...
        
        Emotion
      - (iii) Piagetian Theory
        
        focuses on intellectual development of logical thought and socio-moral knowledge and behaviour
        
        According to his cognitive-development theory, individuals gain knowledge not from the outside but through their own active experiences. Children actively seek information and new experiences as they manipulate and explore their world
        
        Cognitive
- - - - If a friendly smile, specific praise or a special treat increases the likelihood of a child exhibiting a behaviour again, it is called reinforcement.
      - A frown, criticism or withdrawal of privileges is called punishment. The consequences – reinforcement or punishment – are contingent to the child’s behaviour
- - - - According to Bronfenbrenner, the environment is not static. Instead, it is ever-changing.
        He believed that children were products and producers of their environments, so both children and the environments formed a network of interdependent effects
        
        • Microsystem: The innermost level of the environment consists of activities and interaction patterns in the childÊs immediate surroundings.
        
        • Mesosystem: The second level of BronfenbrennerÊs model, which encompasses connections between microsystems such as home, school, neighbourhood and child-care centre.
        
        • Exosystem: Made up of social settings that do not contain children but affect their experiences in immediate settings. These can consist of formal organisations such as parentsÊ workplaces, their religious institutions and health and welfare services in the community.
        
        • Macrosystem: The outermost level of BronfenbrennerÊs model. It consists of cultural values, laws, customs and resources.
- - - - The baby turns his head in the direction of the touch; opens his mouth for feeding
        
        Helps the infant find the nipple
  - - - The baby sucks the
        finger rhythmically
        The baby sucks the
        finger rhythmically
        
        Helps to ensure the baby can latch onto a bottle or nipple during feedin
  - - - The baby quickly closes his eyes or blinks
        
        Protects the baby from bright lights or foreign objects
  - - - The baby will throw his arms and legs out, and his head back, then bring the limbs back into his body as if holding onto something.
        
        Helps the baby cling to his mother
  - - - Spontaneous grasp of finger
        
        prepares the baby for voluntary grasping
  - - - The baby will lift his legs and stretch out, taking stepping movements
        
        Prepares the baby for voluntary walking
  - - - Toes fan out, then curl as the feet twist in
        
        Unknown
  - - - The baby paddles and kicks in a swimming motion
        
        Helps the baby survive in water
  - - - Whichever side the
        childÊs head is facing, the limbs on that side will straighten, and the opposite limbs will curl.
        
        Prepares the baby for voluntary reaching
- - - - (a) “I’m hungry.” – These rhythmic, brief cries get more and more intense until they result in a full-blown tear fest. Watch for visual cues: your baby may open his mouth or start sucking on his fingers.
      - (b) “I’m tired.” – A baby who needs sleep can have an irritated, sporadic cry, may belt out several quick wails, or will look like he wants to cry but cannot. In addition, he will yawn, rub his eyes or turn away from you.
      - (c) “How boring.” – One minute he is cooing with delight, then suddenly he is making throaty noises and whiny moans that sound fake or exaggerated.
      - (d) “Ouch! Something hurts.” – This sudden, piercing scream is often accompanied by a wide open mouth and clenched hands and feet. Look for clothing pinching his skin or a thread wrapped tightly around a toe.
- - - - (i) An event from the past is remembered;
      - (ii) Over time, the event can no longer be recalled; and
      - (iii) A cue can serve to dredge up a memory that seems to have been forgotten.
- - - - It involves the movement of the body from place to place. Such movements help in the development of gross-motor skills which require the use of leg muscles.
        
        Crawling, walking, hopping, running, leaping, galloping and skipping.
    - - Physical abilities where the body stays in one place when the limbs are involved in these movements. This type of movement helps to develop the childÊs balancing and coordination skills.
        
        Pushing, pulling, twisting, turning, wiggling and rising.
    - - Movement that deals with the use of hands and fingers that helps to develop the childÊs fine motor skills and eye-hand coordination.
        
        Grasping food to put into their mouths, holding a bottle or a spoon, picking up toys, fixing the puzzle and writing or
        drawing with crayons.
- - - - (a) Germinal Period (the first two weeks after fertilisation)
        
        The germinal period, which lasts 10 to 14 days, is from conception through implantation, when the developing zygote becomes firmly attached to the wall of the uterus
        
        As the fertilised ovum, or zygote, travels down the fallopian tube towards the uterus, it multiplies rapidly through division. On the third day of conception, it has developed into a ball-like structure, called blastocyst, which will contain 60 to 80 cells, with an inner core and an outer shell of cells
        
        The inner layer of the blastocyst will become the embryo. The outer layer of blastocyst becomes supporting structures for gestation. At this point, the endometrium (the lining of the uterus) has grown and is ready to support the embryo. An amniotic sac and its outer layer, the chorion, surround the embryo and fill with fluid to provide a protected environment for growth.
        
        Part of the chorion develops into the placenta, a fleshy disk of tissue that provides oxygen, delivers nutrients and removes waste products. The placenta separates the maternal and embryonic bloodstreams, keeping the two circulatory systems separate but transferring substances back and forth to sustain the life of the embryo. The umbilical cord is the lifeline that connects the embryo to the placenta
        
        The blastocyst begins to implant itself in the uterus between the seventh and ninth day establishing a supply of nourishment from the motherÊs blood system However, only about 10 to 20 per cent of fertilised eggs complete this crucial task of implantation and become embryos
      - (b) Embryonic Period
        
        The embryonic stage begins on the 15th day after conception and continues until about the eighth week or until the embryo is 1.2 inches in length.
        
        The embryonic period is critical to the healthy development of the foetus
        
        During this period, the cells of the embryo keep multiplying and the major organ systems are developing. By the end of this stage, the developing embryo begins to resemble a miniature person. It is during this critical period that the growing foetus is most susceptible to damage from external sources or teratogens such as chemical substances, viruses, alcohol, drugs, rubella, x-rays and other radiation and poor nutrition.
        
        For example, if a woman contracts German measles during this time, her child stands the risk of being born deaf, blind or with heart disease .
        
        Weeks 3 to 4: The heart, brain, spinal cord and gastrointestinal tract start to form, as do the rudimentary structures that will become the eyes, ears, nose and mouth. By the end of the fourth week, the heart has begun to beat. At this point, the embryo is only about 1/4th of an inch long.
        
        Weeks 5 to 8: The vertebra, lower jaw, larynx (voice box) and external body features such as eyes, ears and limbs are formed. We also see the formation of the nose, jaw, palate and lung buds. By the 28th day, all essential organs have begun to form. The tiny embryo has a peculiar-looking head, body and spinal cord.
        
        By the 8 eighth week, the heart is almost fully developed. The facial features continue to develop and the external ear appears. The embryo now resembles a human being. Also, we see the beginnings of external genitalia. By now, the embryo produces its own blood and can move. The long bones begin to form and the muscles are able to contract. Now, the embryo is 1 inch, 1/15 ounce.
        
        Teratogens introduced during this period may cause heart and lung problems, a cleft palate and ambiguous genitalia and stunting of fingers and toes.
      - c) Foetal Period
- - - - (i) Between the 10th and 20th weeks of pregnancy as this is the first major period of brain growth; and
      - (ii) From the 20th week of prenatal development to four to six months after birth as this is the second major period of brain growth
  - - - Stress hormones can also cross the placenta, causing the foetus' heart rate and activity to rise dramatically.
        Stress also weakens the immune system, making pregnant mothers more vulnerable to infectious disease.
    - - • Rubella (German measles): A maternal disease that can cause mental retardation, malformations, blindness, deafness and heart problems (Santock, 2001).
        
        • Syphilis: A sexually transmitted disease which is more damaging about four months or more after conception. It damages organs after they have formed and causes blindness and skin lesions. Women who plan to have children should have a blood test before they become pregnant to determine whether they are immune to rubella and to detect the presence of syphilis.
        
        • Genital herpes: Newborns could contract this virus if they are delivered through the birth canal of an infected mother. About one-third of the babies will die, and one-fourth will incur brain damage (Santrock, 2001).
        
        • HIV/AIDS: As the number of women with AIDS increases, more newborns are born exposed to and infected with HIV (Cohen & Others, 1996).
- - - - Children born with mothers who consumed alcohol during pregnancy had similar physical deformities such as small heads, low nasal bridges, thin upper lips and eye folds, which is called foetal alcohol syndrome (FAS)
    - - (i) Radiation: Medical procedures involving radiation or X-rays increase the risk of birth defects and cancer.
        
        (ii) Heavy metals in fish: Pregnant women should avoid eating large predatory fishes, such as shark and swordfish, as mercury can be found in the waterways these species inhabit.
        
        In high doses, mercury can cause severe brain damage, cerebral palsy and blindness of the foetus .
        
        (iii) Lead: Prenatal lead exposure has been linked to neurological impairments and numerous structural abnormalities .
        
        (iv) Unsafe chemicals: There has been an increase in neo-natal deaths and congenital abnormalities among the children of mothers and fathers who have been exposed to certain pesticides, vapours from some industrial chemicals and lead .
        
        A recent study indicated that women in certain occupations such as biologists, chemical scientists, pharmacists and janitors have an increased likelihood of giving birth to children with birth defects. cleaning products such as disinfectants, floor care chemicals and glass cleaners can cause health problems and potentially be the cause for the babies of women working as janitors to have birth defects.
- - - - humans are biologically programmed to gain knowledge and language.
- - - - A child's biological sex (male or female) is determined by the chromosome that the male parent contributes. Males have XY sex chromosomes while females have XX sex chromosomes; the male can contribute the X or Y chromosome, while the female must contribute one of their X chromosomes.
  - - - (i) Alphafetoprotein Test (AFP) – A blood test that can identify disorders in the brain or spinal column in the foetus;
      - (ii) Amniocentesis – A technique that involves extracting amniotic fluid from the uterus to detect all chromosomal and over biomedical disorders; and
      - (iii) Chorionic Villus Test (CVT) – A test that analyses samples of the hair like projections (chorionic villi) of tissue in the placenta to determine chromosomal disorders.
- - - - (a) To identify and understand one's own feelings;
      - (b) To accurately read and comprehend emotional states in others, to manage strong emotions and their expression in a constructive manner;
      - (c) To regulate one’s own behavior;
      - (d) To develop empathy for others; and
      - (e) To establish and sustain relationships.”
      - also encompasses the feelings that we have about ourselves and others.
  - - - (i) Smiles and Laughter
        
        reflex smile at birth
        
        At about six weeks, a social smile emerges, including cooing and mouthing, in response to adults' smiles, faces, voices and light touches or gentle play. This social smile engages a person in a social act
        
        This social interaction also indicates that the baby is willing to establish a social relationship with the caregiver.
        
        Around three or four months, laughter begins. It demonstrates that the baby can now recognise incongruity as laughter is usually elicited by something that is different from the norm, such as playing peek-a-boo or seeing something funny. Laughter promotes social development as it fosters close relationships and interactions with others.
      - (ii) Fear: One of the First Negative Emotions
        
        From six to eight months, infants begin expressing fear, disgust and anger because of the maturation of cognitive abilities.
        
        seven months Fear arises when infants are able to compare an unfamiliar event, situation or object with what they know. Unfamiliar adults will also elicit fear responses in infants.
        
        Another factor is the infant's temperament. Temperament (the innate or genetic component of an individualÊs personality) can affect how children respond to the world emotionally.
        
        separation anxiety, which normally appears in children at seven to twelve months old.
    - - During the second year, infants express emotions of shame, embarrassment and pride. These emotions mature in all children, and adults contribute to their development.
    - - Most will be toilet trained during the day and will help with dressing and undressing. Play is more focused, and the child should be quite comfortable going to play with friends or to a playgroup or day care. Ready for the benefits of a nursery or preschool programme.
        
        (i) The Terrible Twos (From One to Three Years Old)
        
        toddlers have frequent mood changes and temper tantrums. Terrible two behaviours are a common and necessary step in normal healthy child development.
        
        (ii) Language, Cognitive and Emotional Development
        
        Children at three years of age are well-developed in abstract thinking and language. Hence, they become better able at labelling and discussing their emotions with others.
        
        (iii) Self-consciousness and Self-awareness
        
        As children become increasingly self-aware, more effective at communicating and better at understanding the thoughts and feelings of others, their social skills increase.
        
        Children in the early childhood stage become skilled at modifying and expressing their emotions to fit different social situations.
- - - - BowlbyÊs Stages in the Development of Attachment
        
        Pre-attachment
        
        0 to 2
        
        Indiscriminate responsiveness to different people
        
        Attachment-in-the-making
        
        2 to 7
        
        Recognition of familiar people
        
        Clear-cut attachment
        
        7 to 24
        
        Separation protest; increasing fear or wariness of strangers
        
        Goal-corrected partnership
        
        24 onwards
        
        Understanding of caregiversÊ needs; more two-sided, mutual relationship