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psych paper 3 - Coggle Diagram

- - - - once a child has established gender identity around 2-3 years old, they will search for behaviour in their environment that develops their gender schema
        
        by the age of 6 years old, children will have fixed stereotypical ideas about their about what is appropriate for their gender, and are likely to disregard information that doesn't fit with their schema.
        
        outgroup
        
        the opposite gender group
        
        ingroup
        
        people of their own gender, who they pay more attention to. Ingroup identity increases the child's self-esteem
        
        8 years old, children will develop schema for both ingroup and outgroup
  - - - age 4, understands their own gender is fixed (can get confused with external appearances e.g. man with long hair)
    - - age 6, recognise gender remains constant across all times and situations
    - - age 2, recognise their own gender and can label others
  - - - the 23rd pair of chromosomes determines biological sex. Females have XX chromosomes and males have XY
      - the Y chromosome carries a region called the 'sex-determining region Y', or SRY for short. The SRY gene causes testes to develop in an XY embryo. These produce androgens, male sex hormones that cause the embryo to become male.
    - - testosterone
        
        controls development of male sex hormone, starts being produced at 8 weeks of foetal development. Implicated in aggression.
      - oestrogen
        
        female hormone that determines female sexual characteristics and menstruation, it causes some women to experience PMS
      - oxytocin
        
        love hormone, present more in women especially during childbirth , stimulates lactation and bonding
      - AO3- Van Goozen et al (1995), studied trans individuals, being injected with opposite sex hormones. Trans women showed decrease in aggression and visuo-spatial skills, and trans men showed the opposite, showing hormones do affect gender-related behaviours
  - - - it affects between 1 in 500-1000 biological males, they have an extra X chromosome (XXY)
      - physical characteristics
        
        reduced body hair, some breast development at puberty, underdeveloped genitals, co-ordination and clumsiness issues.
      - psychological characteristics
        
        poor language skills and reading ability. Shy, passive, lack interest in sexual activity, have issues with executive functioning issues (e.g. problem solving and memory)
      - AO3 Herlihy et al (2011), 87 Australians with Klinefelter's, the earlier they were diagnosed and treated from a young age had significant benefits compared to those diagnosed in childhood.
    - - affects 1 in 5000 biological females, caused by an absence of an X chromosome (X0).
      - physical characteristics
        
        they have no menstrual cycle (amenorrhoea), as their ovaries fail to develop. They do not develop breasts, and have low set ears and a webbed neck. They are physically immature.
      - psychological characteristics
        
        higher than average reading ability, but lower ability at spatial, visual memory and mathematical tasks. Socially immature and have trouble fitting in.
      - AO3 Environment explanations- people with Turner's syndrome may be socially immature due to being treated differently as a result of their physical characteristics
- - - - aims to improve quality of communication in a family and reduce levels of expressed emotion.
        
        Pharoah's strategies result in a reduction of stress levels and expressed emotion, increasing compliance with taking medication, and leading to lower relapse rates
      - Pharoah et al (2010) strategies for improving SZ: reducing stress for caregivers, reducing anger and guilt with families, improving families beliefs and behaviour towards schizophrenia.
    - - reward systems used to manage the behaviour of people with SZ, using tokens (secondary reinforcers) to reward good behaviour (for those in hospital) and are exchanged for privileges
    - - 5-20 sessions, helps people to identify irrational thoughts, and to consider other less threatening alternatives
      - it helps people to understand how their delusions and hallucinations impact their feelings and behaviour, offering psychological alternatives and reducing anxiety.
      - Turkington et al (2004)
  - - - around since the 1950s
        
        Chlorpromazine
        
        can be taken orally, by syrup or injections, and the average dosage is 400 to 800mg.
        
        works as a dopamine antagonist, by blocking the dopamine receptors in the synapses of the brain, reducing the action of dopamine.
        
        Reduces symptoms like hallucinations, and also has sedative properties so can be used for other conditions, or in hospitals for anxious patients, given as a syrup (quickly absorbed).
    - - aim to treat SZ but reduce side effects from typical antipsychotics
        
        Clozapine
        
        lead to some people developing a blood condition called agranulocytosis, so not available in injections, and people taking it must have regular blood checks to check they don't develop it. 300-450mg a day typical dosage.
        
        binds to dopamine receptors, but also acts on glutamate and serotonin receptors, and so helps reduce depression and anxiety, and is prescribed to people with high risks of suicide (30-50% of SZ attempt)
        
        around since 1970s
        
        AO3: Meltzer found that Clozapine is more effective than typical antipsychotics and other atypical antipsychotics, and that it is effective in 30-50% of treatment-resistant antipsychotics where typical antipsychotics have failed.
        
        Risperidone
        
        been around since 1990s
        
        aim to have same effectiveness as Clozapine, but without serious side effects. Normal does 4-8mg per day, can be taken as tablets/syrup/injection
        
        works on serotonin and dopamine receptors, but binds much more strongly to dopamine receptors than clozapine so is effective in much smaller doses.
  - - - Frith et al. (1992) dysfunctional thought processing
        
        metarepresentation
        
        dsyfunction in metarepresentation would disrupt our ability to recognise our own actions and thoughts as being carried out by ourselves rather than someone else. This explains hallucinations of voices and delusions like thought insertion.
        
        central control
        
        the cognitive ability to suppress automatic responses while we perform deliberate actions instead. Disorganised speech and thought disorder could result from the inability to suppress automatic thoughts and speech triggered by other thoughts.
        
        Stirling et al. (2006) compared 30 people with SZ with 18 controls on a range of cognitive tasks, including the Stroop test, in which participants have to name the ink colours of the words, suppressing the impulse to say the colour of the word. People with SZ took over twice as long to name the ink colours than the control group (suggesting central control dysfunction)
    - - the schizophrenogenic mother
        
        Fromm-Reichmann (1948),psychodynamic explanation for SZ, where the mother is cold, rejecting and controlling, creating a family climate full of tension and secrecy, leading to distrust, ending in paranoid delusions and ultimately SZ.
      - double-bind theory
        
        Bateson et al (1972), communication style within a family, child fears doing the wrong thing but receives mixed messages, and when they get it wrong they are punished with the withdrawal of love, leaving them to believe the world is confusing and dangerous, leading to disorganised thinking and paranoid delusions, a risk factor for the development of schizophrenia
      - expressed emotion
        
        the level of negative emotion expressed by a caregiver towards a person with schizophrenia. It includes verbal criticism, hostility, and emotional over-involvement towards a person with SZ. This is a source of stress involved in relapse of SZ.
      - AO3: support for family dysfunction as a risk factor- Read et al (2005), reviewed 46 studies of child abuse and schizophrenia, and concluded that 69% of adult women in-patients with a diagnosis of SZ had a history of physical/sexual abuse in childhood. For men, it was 59%.
      - SZ may lead to family dysfunction, issues with causality.
  - - - diathesis=vulnerability stress = a negative psychological experience
      - Meehl's model- diathesis entirely genetic, schizogene, leading to a schizotypic personality (sensitive to stress). If they don't have this gene they won't develop SZ.
      - Ripke et al (2014)- no 'schizogene', many genes can increase genetic vulnerability
        
        psychological trauma can also be the diathesis (Ingram and Luxton (2005))
        
        Read et al (2001), neurodevelopmental model, severe, early trauma alters the brain, e.g. the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) system can become over-active, making a person much more vulnerable to later stress.
        
        Cannon et al (2002), positive correlation between birth complications and later vulnerability to SZ, due to damage to hormone and neurotransmitter systems
        
        Hogarty et al (1986), effectiveness of combination treatment
- - - - hard determinism
        
        everything we do has a cause and it is dictated by internal and external forces that we cannot control. Compatible with the aims of science (also known as fatalism)
      - soft determinism
        
        It suggests that all human behaviour has a cause, however we have conscious control over the way we behave. Aligns with the cognitive approach
      - biological determinism
        
        physiological, neurological and genetic factors control our behaviour (e.g testosterone in aggressive behaviour). Aligns with biological approach
      - environmental determinism
        
        behaviour is a result of conditioning, all environmental events, and the sum of reinforcement throughout our lives (behaviourism)
      - psychic determinism
        
        biological drives and instincts, and unconscious conflicts (repressed in childhood), control our behaviour (suggested by Freud)
      - AO3- mental disorders. People are not going to choose to have e.g. schizophrenia, and drug treatments work (scientific)
      - AO3 determinism is often unfalsifiable, based on the concept of something is always controlling our behaviour, even if we don't know what they are.
    - - we are free to make our own choices, and are the masters of our own destiny.
      - AO3, Chun Siong Soon et al (2008), brain scan evidence shows brain activity that determines the outcome of simple choices predates our knowledge of making them. Suggesting no free will.
    - - science focuses on how everything in the universe has a cause. In psychology, lab experiments are used to try and precisely control and predict human behaviour
  - - - an approach that focuses on the individual, with their own subjective experiences, morals and values
      - uses methods that rely on qualitative data, such as unstructured interviews, case studies etc
      - aligns with humanistic psychology
      - AO3: it complements the nomothetic approach, by shedding light on general laws through in-depth investigation of individuals
      - AO3: non-scientific, often restricted because case studies are not generalisable for explaining behaviour
    - - focuses on formulating general laws of human behaviour. It is much more scientific, looking at how behaviour can be classified/predicted
      - links to biological approach, behaviourism, cognitive approach.
      - AO3: research under nomothetic approach is usually standardised, using e.g. statistical analysis, giving greater scientific credibility to psychology
      - AO3: it doesn't take into account the subjective experience of the person, and merely sees people as numbers/stats. E.g. knowing that 1% of the population will suffer from SZ doesn't tell us much about what it feels like to have the disorder.
      - Radford and Kirby (1975) suggested 3 broad types of general law: 1. Classifying people into groups (e.g. with MH), 2. establishing principles of behaviour, 3. establishing dimensions (along which people can be placed, e.g. IQ)
  - - - Sieber and Stanley (1988) have identified a number of concerns that researchers should be mindful of when conducting socially sensitive research
        
        implications
        
        uses/public policy
        
        the validity of the research
        
        Andrew Wakefield, autism
- - - - Kohlberg's levels of moral reasoning
      - cognitive distortions
        
        hostile attribution bias
        
        minimalisation
    - - maternal deprivation theory
      - Blackburn's Inadequate superego