FP during the quest for divorce:

• Problems: By criticising his decision to launch a papal dispensation for Catherine to marry Henry, provided her claims that her marriage with Arthur was not consummated, Henry was literally attacking the Church.
• Henry, somewhat obviously, was challenging the authority of the Roman Catholic Church in creating the Church of England and removing the Pope as the Head of the Church.
• Most of the 30s: European powers focused to South. Ottomans had taken over Mediterranean, challenging Charles.
• Cromwell focused on achieving Henry's divorce and establishing him as the head of the church in England. He only really paid attention to Europe upon matters concerning the Break with Rome. Henry was excommunicated in 1538.
• England was desperately in need of an ally against Spain and France following the Break with Rome. Many had turned to Lutheranism in the Catholic HRE, forming the Schmalkaldic League in 1531, searching for Protestant allies. Nothing came of Cromwell's deliberation in forming an alliance with the League, the opportunity entirely wasted. When Charles was angered over the divorce of his aunt (?) Catherine, it would have been natural of Cromwell to turn to France. However, again, nothing came of this. Henry/Cromwell were too focused on the internal, personal aim of seeing the Break with Rome and Reformation through, that they neglected their FP objectives.
• 1538: there was a truce in the Wars between Francis and Charles (Truce of Nice), which led to Henry's fear of a joint invasion of England, with the backing of the Pope. May have influenced Henry's decision to establish the Six Articles in 1539, which restated some key Catholic doctrines.
• Comwell arranged the marriage between Henry and Anne of Cleves. Anne was the sister of the protestant Duke of Germany. Cromwell was supposedly 'misinformed' about her appearance, to which HEnry took an immediate dislike upon her arrival to England in 1539.
• Anne and Henry married 1540, before divorcing the same year. Francis and Charles resumed their rivalry regardless, negating the need for an alliance.

Causes of the Lincolnshire rebellion/the Pilgrimage of Grace:

• Defence of the faith ; The imagery, oaths and propaganda of the pilgrims gave the rebellion a deliberately cultivated religious resonance. Justifying the rebellion and providing the motivation that was needed to sustain it. The rebels demands were also fashioned around the recent religious turmoil within England: they called for an end to the draining of the Church's wealth, renunciation of the Oath of Supremacy and Princess Mary's rehabilitation.
• Taxation; The rebels articles also majorly featured the King's constant demand for taxes. Cromwell's recently introduced tactic of taxation in times of peace was evidently not well received by the people of England. Ex. 1534 Subsidy Act. There was also opposition to the Statute of Uses, which introduced what was essentially a feudal tax upon aristocratic landed inheritance
• The Dissolution of the Monasteries; The welfare of the North was dependent on the monasteries for the social, economic and spiritual significance that they provided. This included providing food, clothing and shelter to the poor/travellers, acting as safe houses for the good and providing tenancies for farmers. Robert Aske claimed this to be the greatest cause of the rebellion, and, again, religion was at the core of the rebel's demands.
• Food shortages; Bad harvests in 1535 and 36 means for agricultural issues, that mainly affected the peasants, however could be argued to also have affected the gentry (loss of produce etc). Renewal of tenancies, border tenures, enclosure and rack-renting (raising rent) all were discussed within the rebel's demands.
• Aristocratic feud: Some histroians (Elton specifically), have argued the rebellion to be an attempt by disaffected nobility to increase their power/influence within court, having been angered by the position that low-born ministers, Ex. Wolsey and Cromwell, managed to achieve. Also irritated by Anne Boleyn's rise to power.
• Opposition to Cromwell's policies: The North saw itself as under attack by the greedy crown regime, and it was believed that Cromwell was the puppet master behind this. The Treason Act, Royal Supremacy and even heresy, were all seen as pieces of Cromwell's work. It became common that nobles would even scapegoat Cromwell's henchmen - members of the Court of Augmentation/those who helped to compile the VE and CM - in order to gain leverage in debates at court.

Events:

• Some 40,000 people participated in the rebellion, which proved to be the largest and most serious revolt of the sixteenth century.
• Henry was never seriously threatened by the rebellion, however the maintenance of Law and Order in the North was risked.
• The rebellion only halted the dissolution of the monasteries for a short amount of time, while Henry recovered from the shock of the revolt.
• Robert Aske, a Yorkshire lawyer, heard of the uprising on the 4 Oct 1536. He called men to maintain the Holy Church. The uprising is seen as a series of interconnected regional revolts rather than one consistent rebellion.
• 10 Oct, Aske led 30,000 men.
• He established HQ in York, before marching to Pontefract castle, the most important stronghold in the North. 21 Nov: Lord Darcy hands over Pontefract as soon as the rebels arrive.
• Aske ensured that all goods were paid for and no murders committed - to this extent, the rebellion could be argued peaceful.
• The force that Darcy had managed to gather, was far larger than the King could afford to counter with, taken completely by surprise. He sent a delegation led by the Duke of Norfolk (Thomas Howard) to buy himself time.
• The rebels presented the Duke of Norfolk with five demands - the York articles.
  The YORK articles: Drawn up by Aske and then sent to the mayor of York 15 Oct. Also shown to the Duke of Norfolk when their forces met with the government. Nine specifically religious, while six politically concerned. The rest were a combination of political, social, economic and religious.
• A truce was signed on the 27 October, stating that Ralph Ellerker and Robert Browne were to meet with the King. Pilgrims kept their chain of demand firmly in place. At the meeting, Henry offered no exceptions, but agreed that he would pardon all ten ringleaders of the rebellion.
• Representatives of the host armies met again at Pontefract from the 2-4 Dec, in order to finalise their demands. They produced a list of 24 key articles - the Pontefract Articles.
  The PONTEFRACT articles: Drawn up by the nobility amongst the rebels, and so were not representative of the many/the poor commoners who were not invited to attend the meeting at all. Again, nine with a focus on religion, and six with a focus on politics. Rest combination of social, economic, political and religious.
• The Pontefract Articles were presented to Norfolk. Henry had given Norfolk permission to grant a general pardon, a prolonged truce, and a parliament session in which their demands would be discussed.
• Aske insisted that dissolution of the monasteries must be suspended before any parliament session was to take place.
• The commons accepted these terms, and began to disperse on Dec 8, after the Lancaster Herald had read out the King's pardon.

Aftermath: - Despite the fact that the Lincolnshire rebellion quickly collapsed when the Duke of Suffolk's forces began to make their way in the direction of the revolt. Following this, rebels took control of Pontefract, having established bases in York and Hull. This greatly alarmed Henry and his governing officials. - An army under the control of the Duke of Norfolk was then sent to challenge this group of rebels. However, this force could not compare in size to that of the rebels. - Norfolk sought to defuse the rebellion through issue of pardon, and the promise that a free parliament would be established alongside the restoration of the dissolved monasteries. - The King, of course, never intended to take anyone up on these promises. - The excuse Henry needed to go back on his word was bought with the Cumberland Rebellion in 1537. - The Duke of Norfolk was therefore justified in his decision to declare martial law and hang 74 of the rebels. Following this initial harsh response, he was rather lenient on the remaining rebels, taking proper legal concern. - A number of rebel leaders, Darcy and Hussey, were executed, alongside selected members of the gentry and heads of the monastic houses. - Henry was undoubtedly shook by the rebellion, which escalated partly due to his own inability to respond to the mood of his people. - The Duke of Norfolk was particularly effective in his dealings with the rebels, and eventual means of finding a conclusion to the trouble. The pilgrimage did not slow the pace of the dissolution, as was one of its main aims.

The Lincolnshire Rebellion, Oct 1536:

• Commissions had been happening prior to the rebellion, involving the dissolution of smaller monasteries, the collection of subsidy, inquiries into the Church's morality and wealth, and the enforcing of new religious rules. It was rumoured that commissioners were seizing (in other words, looting) jewels, relics, gold and extra taxes.
• Began at Louth on 1 Oct, with Horncastle rising in Lincoln.
• People of Horncastle set upon the chancellor of the Bishop of Lincoln and murdered him.
• The revolt was led by a local shoemaker, Nicholas Melton, but was soon overrun with people from every social class, who all grouped together to give their list of demands. There were 10,000 people in total.
• When the Duke of Suffolk's army drew near, the people scarpered in fear. The gentry fled, begging for forgiveness and likewise attempting to deny their role within the rising. The commons dispersed, confused.
• The few that remained were ordered to go home when the Government's herald arrived on the 11 Oct.

The Cumberland Rebellion, Jan - Feb 1537: Bigod's own dissatisfaction with the outcome of The Pilgrimage of Grace, his suspicion of the government, and his perception that further rebellion was a more popular notion within England. //// Robert Aske toured the North, attempting to convince others of the deal that he had made to the gentry, and popularise his cause. //// Sir Francis Bigod remained unconvinced, questioning the sincerity of the government. //// Robert Aske fervently opposed another rebellion, putting his faith in the promises that he had been made. He had even been asked to join the King for Christmas at Hampton Court. //// Nevertheless, Bigod planned to capture Hull and Scarborough, and to force the Duke of Norfolk to act as a go between the government and rebels. //// 16 Jan 1537: Bigod's plan went into operation. Bigod's operation collapsed after a few days. He fled to Cumberland, where commons had launched their own unsuccessful attack on Carlisle in early Feb. //// 10 Feb: Bigod is captured in Cumberland

Background:

• Monasteries were central to the social and spiritual lives of every sector of society. It was where monks said masses and prayers for the dead. Henry VII had 10,000 masses said for him following his death, by monks. They were also centres of education and art: the architecture, carvings, statues and paintings//the texts etc.
• There were several monastic orders that existed in the reign of Henry VIII: Benedictines (largest, wealthiest), Cistercians (break away from Benedictines, lived simpler lives), Carthusians (strictest), Dominicans (Black Friars), Carmelites (White Friars), Franciscans (Grey Friars).
• Early 1500s: 825 religious houses in England and Wales. Over 500 were monateries. Many owned land and employed villagers, providing livelihood for those villages. By 1540, these were all closed.

Causes:

• An end to opponents of the BREAK WITH ROME. Some of the most passionate opponents of the BWR were monks, especially Carthusians and Grey Friars.
• CONTINENTAL INFLUENCE. Monasteries were being dissolved in Germany and Scandanavia. The ideas of Erasmus, Tyndale and Fish, which criticised monasteries, were becoming popular.
• PATRONAGE and GREED. The laity were gaining an increasing appetite for land, following 1536 act. Even Catholics, such as Norfolk, participated in the sale of monastic land/were quick to cash in. This pacified critics of the BWR, as it eased the pain of the religious turmoil/upheaval.
• FINANCIAL motives. Financial resources of the Church were huge. Though the Crown was certainly wealthy enough already, there were FP concerns at this time over a potential crusade, as well as Henry's excommunication and the Pope calling on Francis and Charles to attack. Monastic wealth was needed to pay for fortifications. Rather than impose taxes, Cromwell gave Henry the chance to accrue wealth via a different method.
• IMPERIALISM. Henry's growing sense of xenophobia is somewhat manifested in the Dissolution of the Monasteries and the Reformation; the idea of monasteries owing an allegiance to institutions outside of England became unacceptable to him.

Impacts:

• Monastic buildings: Henry charged with cultural vandalism for his destruction of relics, statues, architecture, books etc. True, though he did reinvest some of the money gained into cathedral grammar schools. Ex. Canterbury, Carlisle, Bristol, Ely.
• Monks and Friars: Majority of monks and friars found alternative paid employment within the Church. 6500 left out of the 8000 that moved on, having collected their pensions.
• Nuns were less well off. 2000 nuns neither allowed to marry or become priests.

To what extent did commoners change?

• Decline in economic and political power saw disappearance of serfdom and labour services.
• Some serfdom still existed, but most peasantry relatively free to move around the country as they pleased.
• Many peasants took advantage of land availability and increased their holdings from 12-16 hectares to 80. They could then join the rank of the yeoman.
• Commoners with skills and trades moved to the towns in order to build up their businesses (urbanisation).

To what extent did Elites change?

• Major changes began as the landscape evolved to be far more individualistic and competitive.
• Elites began to struggle to hold their large estates. Crown became far more attractive prospect for lesser elites, and great households were leased or sold out.
• Urban elite (merchants, retailers, craftsmen) rose in power and status, meaning that they had more of a voice.
• No profit for the large aristocratic estates,as prices and rent kept increasing.
• Often only made money from land by waiting for a lease to run out before repossessing it.
• Gentry began to benefit from land increases, and became a far more prominent class within the English social hierarchy.

Employment:

• Beginning of modern capitalist system formed.
  
  • Poorer members of society beginning to own less and less land, instead found employment as farm labourers, or in industries such as the cloth industry, or lace making. Worked for wages, instead of food for families.
  • Result of increased engrossment and wealthy yeomen forcibly buying farms to merge them into larger, more industrious farms.
  • 'Putting out' system introduced - Wealthy men would provide the families with materials needed to produce items ex. lace, nails, cutlery. The families would then have to pay back the cost of the tools to the wealthy men, receiving very little pay for finished products, in comparison with the time/effort that it took to make them.

Social Reforms:

• Cromwell tried to introduce reforms many times, particularly targeting local government by attacking territorial franchises ('liberties'). In doing so, he only served to impede the operation of royal justice.
• He passed the Act for Continuing of Certain Liberties and Franchises in 1536. This limited local anomalies and prevented local religious/feudal officials from interfering with JPs and sheriffs performing their duties.
• The balance of power still lay with gentry/landowners who acted as sheriffs or JPs, regardless of his attempted reforms.
• Cromwell made some strides in addressing the socio-economic problems that existed. 'Commonwealth' measures (that would provide the King's subjects with full social and economic justice) had been called for by intellectuals. It has been argued by certain historians (Morris in 1998), that Cromwell sympathised with these measures and promoted them before Parliament contained them.
• 1531 and 1532: Acts passed to fix prices of certain foodstuffs at reasonable price.
• Act in 1533 attempted to create machinery needed to determine fair food prices, however this soon fell through as it was impossible, and was repealed in 1542.

Regional problems in Wales, Ireland and the North:

• Ireland: Henry used Irish offices as rewards for his courtiers. He replaced the Earl of Kildare in 1519 with Thomas Howard. His arrival in 1520 with an army, effectively bought the whole nation under his control. Thomas Cromwell began to interfere in Ireland to ensure that officials there were loyal to him and not Kildare, following several rebellions.
• Wales: Maintaining Law and Order in Wales and the Marches was crucial to prevention of rebellion. Cromwell became active in Wales, restoring good governance. Francises Act, 1536: constitutional amendment that bought the administration of Wales in line with England. Abolished the rights of any semi-autonomous lands that had existed there.
• North: The Council in York was set up to govern this region. Southerners were often appointed to rule. Monasteries were an integral part of Northern life, explaining the large proportion of northerners that participated in the Pilgrimage of Grace.

Policies in Wales, Ireland and the North:

• Wales: Wales Act of 1536 - Divided Wales into shire counties, operating similarly to English counties. Welsh shires had direct representation in the Commons. Wales would now have the same legal framework as England. Wales had lost its individual identity, save from the survival of the Welsh language - the Acts of Union. Control over Wales still exercised on Crown's behalf. Became the responsibility of members of the aristocracy such as the earls of Pembroke, who controlled county politics and became prominent within the legal profession - they were elected by parliament.
• Ireland: Henry adopted the title the King of Ireland in 1541. The crown kept a tight control over the Irish parliament.
• The North: The North created trouble as it was so far away from Parliament. After the PoG Henry and Cromwell established the Council in the North as a permanent body - had both legal and admin. functions and kept the North quiet during the rebellion of 1549. Northerners resented the appointment of Southerners to the council.

How did religious change affect Ireland?

• Earl of Kildare arrested after making it clear that he would not permit reformation of the Church within Ireland. Died in the Tower of London in 1534.
  
  • Rebellion spread throughout Ireland, led by Silken Thomas (Kildare's son), causing Henry to order a military response.
  • Feb 1537, Silken and five of his uncles were executed and Ireland had surrendered.
  • 1538: legal reformation of the Irish Church complete with the dissolution of the monasteries. Leaders took English titles, with the hopes of regaining lands to pass to their eldest sons - this was known as 'Surrender and re-grant'. The issue with this was that land belonged to kin, not the elected head of the family, so attempts to impose English traditions onto Irish families were limited.
  • June 1541, Anthony St Leger established a new direction in Irish policy. An Act of the Irish Parliament declared Henry the King of Ireland. The Act established the English monarchy independent claim to lands in Ireland.

Wolsey's approach to economy:

• Wolsey needed the economy to remain prosperous, in order to be able to draw from the King's sources of income ex.extraordinary and ordinary revenue.
• Wolsey realised these sources of finance were unsustainable, and sought to improve the structure of finance ex. property taxes made into fixed rates (can't change with inflation), but this just meant that the Crown could not profit as much.
• National survey of 1522, investigated who could pay and how much. Raised £200,000, but was a short term solution to raising finances.
• Recoinage 1526, Introduced new coins and reduced silver used in coins. Aimed to make money more available and cheaper to make. Had brief success, but was internationally confusing, resulted in price increases. Suffering meant riots in 1528.

Cromwell's approach to economy:

• Increased specialisation within the government to deal with finances.
• Ensured more consistent income for Crown.
• Ex. Court of Augmentations (Controlled land and finances previously held by Catholic Church), Court of General Surveyors (controlled ex-monastic land and finances), Court of First Fruits and Tenths (controlled tax previously sent to Pope), Court of Wards (Feudal right to collect from the estate of a minor under age 21 who had inherited)

Exploration:

• Henry was uninterested in exploration and made no efforts to build on achievements of Cabot and the Bristol merchants at the end of the 1400s.
• Robert Thorne, a Bristol trader, continued his involvement in Iceland and Newfoundland fishery.
• Other explorers, except from Thorne, found themselves unable to win royal support for any venture.
• Sebastian Cabot remianed in Spain for the majority of Henry's reign, except from two short visits to England. He only returned after Edward VI took the throne.

Debasement of the Coinage:

• Debasement of the coinage took place during Henry VIII's reign . This was mixing common metals with precious metals while maintaining the face value of the coin. This was to create more money, but only led to inflation.
• Debasement of the coinage created a short term solution. There was an artificial boom in 1544 and 1546 but at a long-term cost to living standards.
• Debasement was started by Cardinal Wolsey in 1526. In the last few years the coinage was repeatedly debased.
• From around 1542, including the early part of Edward VI's reign, the value of the currency was depleted to less than 1/3 of its initial value.
• Most goods rose in price, particularly staple items. Hard to detect the starting point of this, and worse effected periods were later periods ex. price of corn doubled, rising 600% during the century (?!). Other prices also inflated but by less. Possible cause is population growth, as it saw increasing demand for subsistence items, but supply was inflexible and could not keep up with pace.
• Few innovations in agriculture took place during this period, and land reclamation for new cultivation was slow and expensive.
• Demand outstripped supply, and farmers and markets could then increase market price. Not just profiteering, but also a response to pressures on landowners including higher price of land and increased cost of living.

Prosperity and Depression:

• Population increased after 1525, which strained resources in England. The mortality rate also declined.
• Land used for pastoral needs, not arable. Led to an increase in enclosure.
• Stagnation in wages as migrants presented cheap labour, meant richest got richer and poor got poorer.
• From the 1520s, agricultural prices rose significantly, so there was an increase in farming incomes, enhanced by engrossing.
• There was a growing class of substantial farmers. Wealthier farm owners and landowners massively benefited from the increase in population. Richer becoming richer, poor staying poor etc.
• Bad harvests 1520-21, 1527-9, led to temporary increases in food prices.Food prices almost doubled during the reign of Henry VIII.
• Real wages began to decline after a period of stability. Worst at the end of Henry's reign when effects if debasement became evident.
• Over half of population in Coventry recorded as having no personal wealth, the same for a third of the population of Yarmouth.
• Growing population evident amongst rural labourers. Most moved to towns or cities.5000 migrants a year in the population of Ireland.
• Some made homeless as a result of engrossing, though the extent of this is difficult to judge.
• Enclosure created a moral problem, in that it forced people to live their homes.Thomas More's Utopia highlighted the harmful effects of enclosure, published in 1516. Wolsey launched and enclosure commission in response. 188 found to have enclosed land illegally. Legislation followed ex. 1534, attempted to limit sheep ownership. Enclosure limited to certain areas ex East Midland villages.
• Total population in Tudor England, including England and Wales: 1524 = 2.3 mill, 1541 = 2.7 mill, 1550 = 2.9 mill, 1569 = 3.2 mill, 1599 = 4 mill.

Engrossing, enclosure and anti-enclosure legislation:

• Most controversial and greatest change of the period was the spread of enclosure into the rich arable farming lands of the midlands.
• Meant a boundary was established around a field, so that livestock could be kept together, or so that one crop could be produced.
• More efficient for farmer, but led to eviction of tenants and changed their tradition.
• Enclosure took different forms: enclosure of common land most likely to provoke opposition. Villagers claimed rights to common land for pasturing animals, cutting timber or peat, and for fishing or hunting. Fencing these areas off deprived them of such means of producing resources. Reactions to enclosure were often violent. Mobs destroyed fences and hedges, and larger groups called petitions to grab the attention of the gov.
• Tudor govs were concerned, but they did not really act. JPs called to carry out any orders regarding limiting of enclosure. Little will to enforce issue, as these were same people doing the enclosure.
• Gov also realised enclosure stimulated the growth of the woollen industry and indirectly added to national wealth and increased tax revenues from export sales. Therefore, even the government was unwilling to entirely limit enclosure.
• The legislation passed reflects the awkward nature of their situation, and was rarely successful.

Legislation to aid the poor:

• There was an increase in poverty, a consequence of population growth and the subsequent inflation.
• In addition to localised job shortages, there were more permanent structural changes to the economy.
• Population growth means for a younger society, without the jobs to occupy the majority. Inflation means for a rise in prices, not for a rise in wages.
• The growing importance of the cloth industry, saw farmers changing their land usage to sheep tending rather than agriculture. This contributed to growing enclosure, which was resorted to in order to create pastureland.
• Gov action also exacerbated the problem; legislation to prevent nobles from keeping retainers, meant a reduction in the size of households, and added thousands to the job market.
• The dissolution of the monasteries may have forced ex-monks to look for work, in addition to removing monastic communities completely from local economies.Merchants who bought from/supplied monasteries saw a fall in their incomes, and the traditional social role of church houses (shelter, medical care, food) was completely removed. Many families pushed into poverty. Tudor governments initially not all that concerned.
• Authorities, however, were concerned regarding the dangers of begging and vagrancy, so main legislation recommended strict punishment for begging, in addition to the return of the vagrant to their original parish, to prevent any spread of the issue.
• Trying to discern the distinction between impotent and idle poor was too simple an evaluation of the problem.
• Initiative to take action came from local authorities rather than the gov. They collected and distributed donations, however these schemes relied on the wealthy.
• They were given added force by acts such as the 1572 Poor Relief Act, which made donations compulsory.
• Few authorities had sympathy for the idle poor, regarding them as a social nuisance and a source of crime. They met them with punishment and eviction.
• 1572: more recognition given to those genuinely unemployed due to circumstances rather than idleness. Government tried to support this group, especially through the 1590s. Such efforts produced variable results: some communities (such as Norwich) drew up detailed Poor Relief schemes but most failed to offer the same level of social support that the Church offered pre-Reformation.