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Ecology of Teaching - Coggle Diagram

- - - - Children have different ways they learn best, and teachers have different ways they teach best. When I was in school, I liked listening to interesting lectures. I liked organization and analysis. When I had difficulty, I appreciated help from a neighboring student. I disliked being put into groups and given a task. I hated laboratory assignments. My daughter, on the other hand, loved working in groups and hated analytical tasks. She also liked writing creative stories. She was not too fond of lab work, either. I liked teachers who were structured and followed a plan; my daughter liked teachers who were innovative in their approaches to curriculum. Student learning style and teacher teaching style can be viewed as bidirectional, with one influencing the other.
      - Some children learn more effectively by observation, modeling, and apprenticeship rather than through verbal instruction, the teaching method most commonly used in American schools. To illustrate, Joan tells how she learned to prepare salmon as a child. After watching her mother, she was allowed to gradually take on portions of the task and to ask questions only if they were important. Once she told her mother that she didn't understand how to do “the backbone part.” So her mother took an entire fish and repeated the deboning because, according to her, it is not possible to understand “the backbone part” except in the context of the whole fish.
      - The Relationship between Learning Style and Socialization
        
        Researchers (Hilliard, 1992; C. C. Park, 2001; Tharp, 1989) suggest that children develop learning or cognitive styles based on the socialization they receive in their families and peer groups—although there are still many unanswered questions about cognitive styles. Children who live in families that are structured—members have defined roles, specific times are set aside for eating and sleeping, the family uses formal styles of group organization (relating to a leader, pursuing goals, receiving feedback)—have been observed to have an analytical cognitive style. Children who live in families that are less structured—roles are shared, individuals eat when hungry and sleep when tired—are more likely to exhibit a relational cognitive style.
        
        Orientation toward Persons/Objects
        
        Children from collectively oriented families tend to be more oriented toward feelings and personal interaction, and are more proficient at nonverbal communication, than are children from individually oriented families (Bennett, 2010; Hale-Benson, 1986; Hale, 2004). This is because children from collectively oriented families generally get a lot of experience interacting with people (Hale-Benson, 1986; Hale, 2004). Communication in these interactions may differ from that experienced by children from individually oriented families.
        
        In a collectively oriented conversation, talking may jump from topic to topic rather than following a linear sequence from the beginning of the story to the end as occurs in an individually oriented conversation (Ramsey, 2004). Children from individually oriented families generally learn to focus on objects; they usually have numerous opportunities to manipulate things and discover properties and relationships. These experiences with objects help prepare them for school, which is also object-oriented, using books, computers, learning centers, and so on.
        
        Field Dependence/Independence
        
        Some children exhibit a holistic, concrete, social approach to learning (Bennett, 2010). This style of learning, referred to as field-dependent, usually implies that the person works well in groups and perceives things in terms of the whole context. A field-independent learning style, on the other hand, describes an analytic and logical approach to tasks and usually implies that the person relates well to impersonal, abstract information, independent of the context. Children who tend to be more field-dependent likely were socialized to be open, warm, committed to mutual dependence, cooperative, sensitive to the feelings of others, and respectful of adults and social convention (Greenfield, Suzuki, & Rothstein-Fisch, 2006; C. C. Park, 2001; Soldier, 1985).
        
        Demonstration is a socialization method related to the field-dependent learning style, with its intended outcome being visualization (Bennett, 2010). Adults demonstrate how to perform a task correctly, expecting the child to eventually master it internally (by visualization); guidance is gentle and supportive. Disapproval is indirectly communicated via silence or shame (Shibusawa, 2001). Children also learn through careful observation, noticing, for example, the behavior and expressions of adults, the changing weather conditions, the terrain, and so on.
        
        After observing an adult do a task, the child takes over small portions of the task under the guidance of the adult; the child becomes an apprentice. When the child feels ready to do the whole task, she practices it in private. Thus, failures are not seen and don't cause embarrassment, but success is demonstrated for the adult with pride (Rogoff, 2003). In contrast, direct verbal communication of instructions and standards, feedback, external rewards, and punishment are socialization methods related to the field-independent learning style.
        
        Adapting Teaching Style to Diverse Learning Styles
        
        Families that value hierarchical roles socialize children to view the teacher as the complete source of knowledge. These children may be less inclined to participate in class discussions or share ideas, and may be reluctant to work with other students on group projects. They have been taught that the student's job is to listen, take notes, memorize, follow directions, and recite. In their families, children's ideas are not requested, nor are they valued. They are taught not to ask questions, argue, or challenge the teacher (Dresser, 2005).
        
        Families that value effort and hard work as well as the importance of group identity (in that one's performance reflects upon the family or teacher) socialize children to be top performers on achievement tests (Magno, Profugo, & Mendoza, 2008; Stevenson & Lee, 1990).
        
        Because all children learn differently, Howard Gardner (1999) recommends that teachers adapt the curriculum to the following multiple intelligences he believes encompass human capability (see Figure 7.3):
        
        Logical-mathematical: skills related to solving logical problems and performing mathematical calculations (generally qualities of scientists, mathematicians)
        
        Linguistic: skills related to the meaning, sound, and rhythm of words as well as the use of language (generally qualities of authors, journalists, poets)
        
        Body kinesthetic: ability to coordinate parts of the body and manipulate objects skillfully (generally qualities of athletes, dancers, surgeons)
        
        Musical: ability to produce pitch and rhythm and appreciate musical expression (generally qualities of musicians, composers, singers)
        
        4 more items...
- - - - ♦ get better grades and test scores
      - ♦ graduate from high school at higher rates
      - ♦ are more likely to go on to higher education
      - ♦ behave more positively
      - ♦ are more achievement-oriented.
  - - - learned helplessness the perception, acquired through negative experiences, that effort has no effect on outcomes
        
        Families, Substance Abuse, and Children
        
        The teacher-student relationship is affected by the child's exposure to the use or abuse of substances by family members. Substance abuse has been consistently linked with poor parenting and poor family functioning; addicted parents' primary relationship is with drugs, not with their children (National Center on Addiction and Substance Abuse, 1998).
        
        Prenatal Substance Exposure
        
        One group of children from at-risk families are those children prenatally exposed to drugs or alcohol. (Postnatal exposure poses risks, too, as discussed in the next section on alcohol.) Commonly abused drugs include crack cocaine, heroin, marijuana, tranquilizers, and stimulants. Substance-exposed infants exhibit low birth weight, sleeping and eating disorders, and increased irritability. They experience not only physical and health problems but psychological and behavioral ones as well (National Institute on Drug Abuse, 2010; Tyler, 1992).
        
        Family Alcohol Abuse
        
        alcoholism a chronic, progressive, and potentially fatal disease characterized by excessive tolerance for alcohol and by physical dependence and/or pathologic organ changes
        
        Alcohol consumption during pregnancy can produce abnormalities in the developing fetus. Alcohol interferes with the delivery of nutrients to the fetus, impairs the supply of fetal oxygen, and interferes with protein synthesis (AACAP, 2011g).
        
        A specific cluster of abnormalities appearing in babies exposed prenatally to alcohol abuse (heavy drinking) was described and named fetal alcohol syndrome (FAS) by Kenneth Jones and his colleagues (Jones, Smith, Ulleland, & Streissguth, 1973). Among the distinguishing features of this syndrome are prenatal and postnatal growth retardation and facial abnormalities, including small head circumference; widely spaced eyes; short eyelid openings; a small, upturned nose; and a thin upper lip.
        
        Behavior problems appear in infancy and persist into childhood; the most common are irritability, hyperactivity, poor concentration, and poor social skills. Sometimes affected children display other physical problems such as defects of the eyes, ears, heart, urinary tract, or immune system (Aaronson & MacNee, 1989).
        
        The consequences of living in an alcoholic family are particularly difficult for young children and adolescents, because alcoholism affects the process of socialization of values, morals, attitudes, behavior, gender roles, self-control, and self-concept. The effects of alcoholism depend on the child's age, gender, relationship to the drinking and nondrinking parents, and relationship to other family members or other social networks.
        
        Children with parents who abuse alcohol are often embarrassed by them. The ashamed child does not invite friends home and is afraid to ask anyone for help. The child also feels anger toward the alcoholic parent for drinking and may be angry with the nonalcoholic parent for lack of support and protection. The children may even feel guilty, perceiving themselves as the cause of the parent's drinking (AACAP, 2011c).
        
        Although the child tries to keep the parent's alcoholism a secret, teachers, friends, relatives, or other caring adults may sense that something is wrong. The following behaviors may signal a problem (AACAP, 2011c):
        
        ♦ failure in school; truancy
        
        ♦ lack of friends; withdrawal from classmates
        
        ♦ delinquent behavior, such as stealing or violence
        
        ♦ frequent physical complaints, such as headaches or stomachaches
        
        ♦ abuse of drugs or alcohol
        
        ♦ aggression toward other children
        
        ♦ risk-taking behaviors
        
        ♦ depression or suicidal thoughts or behavior
        
        Families, Violence, and Children
        
        Violence in families includes child maltreatment and domestic abuse. Various types and observable signs of maltreatment were explained in Chapter 4; here the masked effects that interfere with development are discussed.
        
        Domestic violence can be defined as “the systematic abuse by one person in an intimate relationship in order to control and dominate the partner” (Kearny, 1999, p. 290). Abusive behavior can be physical, emotional, mental, and/or sexual. Domestic violence is found in all socioeconomic classes and ethnic groups. Most is experienced by women, although some men experience it too (CDC, 2013). The government plays a significant role in preventing negative outcomes from domestic violence. It has passed laws, such as the Safe Start Initiative in 2000, to prevent and reduce the impact of family and community violence against young children (Office of Juvenile Justice and Delinquency Prevention [OJJDP], 2011).
        
        Research (Child Trends, 2013) shows that children who witness domestic violence experience higher levels of childhood behavioral, social, and emotional problems than children who have not witnessed such violence, and that the emotional consequences of viewing or hearing violent acts may often have the same lasting effects on children as being a direct victim of violence. These dangers are greatest for the youngest children, who depend almost completely on their parents and other caregivers to protect them from trauma.
        
        Breaking the silence surrounding domestic violence and providing appropriate intervention can help. Specific preventive strategies include the following:
        
        ♦ Identification. Be alert to changes in emotional, social, and/or learning behaviors. Ask the child, “What's wrong?” (Does the child not want to go home? Is the child unusually attached to her teacher? Is the child withdrawn? Is the child aggressive or a bully?)
        
        ♦ Support. Be available to listen to the child and acknowledge his feelings without being judgmental. Help the child develop ways to release his feelings appropriately.
        
        ♦ Modeling. Exhibit nonviolent, cooperative ways of solving problems.
        
        Children who are exposed to domestic violence often experience the following feelings (Kearny, 1999, p. 291).
        
        ♦ Anger. They are angry at the abuser for perpetrating the violence, at the victim for tolerating it, or at themselves for not being able to stop it.
        
        ♦ Fear/terror. They are afraid that the mother or father will be seriously injured or killed, that they or their siblings will be hurt, that others will find out and then the parents will be “in trouble,” or that they will be removed from the family.
        
        ♦ Powerlessness. Because they are unable to prevent the fights from happening, or to stop the violence when it occurs, they feel out of control.
        
        ♦ Loneliness. They feel unable or afraid to reach out to others, feeling “different” or isolated.
        
        ♦ Confusion. They are confused about why it happens, choosing sides, what they should do, what is “right” and “wrong.” They are also confused about how the abuser can sometimes be caring and at other times violent.
        
        ♦ Shame. They are ashamed about what is happening in their home.
        
        ♦ Guilt. They feel guilty that they may have caused the violence, or that they should have been able to stop it but couldn't.
        
        ♦ Distrust. They don't trust adults because experience tells them that adults are unpredictable, that they break promises, and/or that they don't mean well.
        
        Macro system Influences: Philosophies of Teaching and Learning
        
        Macrosystem influences on teaching include philosophical and theoretical foundations of teaching and learning that have undergone change over the years; classroom and curriculum contexts affected by school administration; and policies and procedures regarding accountability for achievement (standardization and individuation).
        
        Philosophies of teaching range from emphasis on the learner, with the goal of expanding an individual's knowledge (learner-directed), to emphasis on the teacher, with the goal of methodically presenting new knowledge to the student (teacher-directed). One root of the learner-directed teaching philosophy comes from the Greek philosopher Socrates (469–399 B.C.E.), who believed “Knowledge is virtue.” He developed the Socratic method, eliciting knowledge from individuals by questioning their statements until a satisfactory logical conclusion was reached.
- - - - Did you know that before 1975, children with disabilities could not attend public school in most states? Today, thanks to legislation (discussed in Chapter 6), all children have the right to a free and equitable education. Here we examine the teacher-student interaction as it is affected by the presence of a disability. Not only have laws been passed to give individuals with disabilities equal access rights, but educators have modified the teaching environment to include the following (Hallahan, Kauffman, & Pullen, 2011):
        
        Individualized instruction, in which the child's abilities rather than prescribed academic content provide the basis for teaching techniques.
        
        Adaptation of the curriculum to various learning styles, whereby visual, auditory, and tactile learners are motivated to succeed.
        
        Collaboration with various professionals, so that services such as medical, physical therapy, speech therapy, and counseling are provided.
        
        Peer tutoring, in which children with greater abilities help those who are in need.
      - Families of Children with Disabilities and Available Public Services
        
        The Individuals with Disabilities Education Act (IDEA), discussed in Chapter 6, requires that children with disabilities be placed in the “least restrictive environment.” This means inclusion with nondisabled peers whenever appropriate. In order to determine and maintain optimal placement, IDEA requires that an individualized education program (IEP) be written annually (IDEA 2004 allows for IEP long-term planning for up to three years in certain cases) and reviewed by (1) the child, (2) the parent, (3) the teacher, (4) the professional who has evaluated the child most recently, and (5) the principal or school district special resource person. The IEP must specify educational goals, methods for achieving those goals, special educational/resource services to be provided to meet the child's needs, and appropriate assessment measures. The NCLB provides modifications for children with disabilities.
        
        Identification and Assessment of Children with Disabilities
        
        Congress passed Public Law 99-457 in 1986, a law which addressed the needs of infants, toddlers, and preschoolers with disabilities. It also recognized that families play a large role in the socialization of children with disabilities. Consequently, PL 99-457 provides that, whenever appropriate, the preschooler's IEP will include instruction for parents; it then becomes an individualized family service plan (IFSP). A variety of programs are available to meet the needs of preschool children with disabilities. These can be home-based or center-based and can be full-or part-time.
        
        The purpose of preschool intervention services, as defined by Congress, follows:
        
        Teachers and others who work on a daily basis in preschool programs are in a unique position to assess young children. By observing and recording specific child behaviors that occur excessively, or that occur instead of appropriate behaviors, the teacher can identify children who may have potential disabilities.
        
        To enhance the development of infants and toddlers with disabilities and to minimize the potential for delay.
        
        To reduce educational costs by minimizing the need for special education and related services after infants and toddlers with disabilities reach school age.
        
        To minimize the likelihood of institutionalization of individuals with disabilities.
        
        To enhance the capacity of families to meet the special needs of infants and toddlers.
        
        Teachers and parents can observe behavior using a variety of techniques: anecdotal records, checklists and rating scales, time samples, and measurements of behavior.
        
        ♦ Anecdotal records report a child's adaptive behavior in various situations.
        
        ♦ Checklists and rating scales are used to compare a child's development against norms or averages.
        
        ♦ Time samples record everything a child does for a certain period of time each day (for example, from 9:00 to 10:00 for five consecutive days).
        
        ♦ Measurements of behavior record the frequency of a behavior, its duration, its antecedents, and its consequences.
        
        Assessment, of course, is meaningless unless adequate follow-up and services are provided for children who need them. Services may involve corrective or supportive medical services (such as prosthetics or physical therapy) and/or special educational programs (such as professional in-home training or a center the child attends). Services may also involve social work or counseling (such as parent training in special care or linking the family to services to which the child is legally entitled). Assessment must be an ongoing process, hence the need for the IEP or IFSP, previously discussed. When children are continually assessed, their performance can indicate the need to modify the special program.
        
        Any program designed to meet the special needs of children with disabilities must involve the family (Heward, 2012). Recognizing that parents are family members with myriad responsibilities and individual needs and preferences has a profound influence on parent-professional relationships in special education settings. The same concept of individuation embraced by the field of special education as pertinent to children and youth also applies to parents and other family members.
        
        Inclusion of Individuals with Disabilities in the Community
        
        The community, through legislation, has facilitated integration of individuals with disabilities into society. Not only do people with disabilities have a right to receive an appropriate education; they also have the right to equal employment opportunities and the right to enjoy the services provided by the community.
        
        The Americans with Disabilities Act (ADA), passed in 1990, serves as a bill of rights for individuals with disabilities in order to guarantee equal opportunity. It bars discrimination in employment, transportation, public accommodations, and telecommunications. This law guarantees access to all aspects of life—not just those that are federally funded—for people with disabilities. The law specifies that “reasonable accommodations” be made according to the disability a person has.
        
        For children with certain kinds of disabling conditions, identification can occur at birth—for example, Down syndrome and various physical deformities. Behaviors not usually exhibited by normal infants can be identified shortly after birth—for example, extreme lethargy, continual crying, convulsions, and paralysis. However, many disabling conditions, such as learning disabilities, are not readily apparent and may not be suspected until later.
- - - - Although the macroculture includes people who are not white, of European descent, or Protestant, certain basic values are shared to some degree by all members of the macro-culture. Generally, the American macroculture (briefly discussed in Chapter 1 as a low-context macrosystem), is characterized by the following (Arensberg & Niehoff, 1975; Stewart & Bennett, 1991; Williams, 1960):
      - Emphasis on active mastery rather than passive acceptance—individuals are responsible for what happens to them.
      - Valuation of the work ethic, characterized by industriousness, ambition, competitiveness, individualism, independence.
      - Achieved status is based on occupation, education, and financial worth, rather than inheritance.
      - Stress on assertiveness rather than humility.
      - Valuation of fairness. People are given equal opportunities in social, political, and economic institutions rather than hierarchal privileges.
      - More interest in the external world of things and events than the internal world of meaning and feeling. Achievement and success are measured by the quality of material goods purchased.
      - Emphasis on change, flow, movement. New and modern are better than old and traditional; emphasis is on future rather than past or present.
      - Belief in rationalism rather than traditionalism. Things are not accepted just because they have been done before; there has to be a logical reason for doing something.
      - Emphasis on peer relationships rather than superordinate-subordinate. The macro-culture advocates equality, or horizontal relationships, rather than hierarchy, or vertical relationships.
      - Focus on individual personality (individualism, independence) rather than group identity and responsibility (collectivism, interdependence). An adaptive and outgoing personality is the ideal rather than a conventional, introverted one.
      - Objective, impersonal relationships to others tend to be the norm rather than subjective, personal ones; communication is direct or confrontational.
      - Principles of right and wrong characterize personal life and community affairs, rather than shame, dishonor, or ridicule.
      - Some Generalized Values of the Microculture
        
        The degree to which individual U.S. citizens subscribe to the general values of the macro-culture depends, in part, on the values of the microculture, or minority group, to which they belong (the microculture was briefly discussed in Chapter 1 as a high-context mac-rosystem). The degree may also depend on how much an individual must interact with formal societal institutions for support (Gollnick & Chinn, 2012).
        
        Orientation toward the extended family. The child is considered an important member of the family group; the family provides a psychological support system throughout the individual's life. Cousins are considered as close as brothers. Emphasis is placed on cooperation, helping those in need, and respect for elders. Family matters may take precedence over school attendance.
        
        Fostering of sharing and group ownership. To a child who has not been socialized to understand individual ownership (“These are your crayons”), your may mean belonging to the group. Thus, if Lee cannot find his pencil, he borrows Steve's without asking because he regards whatever belongs to the group as his, too.
        
        Humility. Children are socialized not to “show up” (demonstrate individual superiority over) their peers. Children from collectivistic cultures may not exhibit competitive behaviors in classroom settings, such as responding to “Who has the best work?” However, when performance is socially defined as benefiting the peer society (“Which group has read the most books?”), children from collectivistic cultures compete well.
        
        Learning occurs by observation and being patient. At home, children from collectivistic cultures may not be rewarded for curiosity and for asking questions; parents may even use legends and fables to discourage curiosity.
        
        Respect and compliance is shown by no eye contact rather than by looking directly at an adult, as is expected in the macroculture.
        
        Ascribed status is more characteristic of collectivistic cultures, where status is based more on who you are (family name) than what you have achieved.
        
        Present-time orientation is more common than future-time orientation. Time is viewed as a continuum, with no beginning and no end. Ceremonies, for example, begin when the participants are ready, rather than punctually at the scheduled time.